DRAFT MODEL TRAINING PROGRAM FOR HAZARD COMMUNICATION

U.S. Department of Labor
Occupational Safety & Health Administration
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DRAFT MODEL TRAINING PROGRAM FOR
HAZARD COMMUNICATION

U.S. Department of Labor
Occupational Safety and Health Administration

TABLE OF CONTENTS

OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION
1. Why do we need a Model Training Program?
2. What are the training requirements of the HCS?
3. What do these information and training requirements mean?
4. What are some common problems encountered with training?
5. What is in the Model Training Program, and how can it help me?
GUIDANCE FOR SITE SPECIFIC TRAINING
1. What should I do first?
2. How do I identify training needs?
3. How do I prepare training goals and objectives?
4. How do I put a program together?
5. How do I conduct the training?
6. How do I evaluate program effectiveness?
7. What do I do with evaluation results?
8. Summary
GENERAL ELEMENTS
1. Introduction
2. How to Use the Lesson Plans
3. Preparation for Training

APPENDICES

Glossary
Sources of Help and References
Lesson Plans
Teaching Slides
Quizzes

OVERVIEW

This document is designed to help employers provide effective training to employees who are exposed to hazardous chemicals, as required by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration's (OSHA) Hazard Communication Standard (HCS). Effective training is vital to understanding the information provided on chemical container labels and material safety data sheets, and applying that information in the workplace to protect against chemical hazards.

The document is composed of three sections. First, an introduction provides a brief explanation of the training requirements of the HCS, and how the Model Training Program is designed to assist in meeting those requirements. Second is a section providing guidance for site-specific training. OSHA recognizes that the training needs and resources available to employers can vary considerably. This section is intended to assist employers in tailoring training to the circumstances found in their workplace. In the third section, general elements common to all HCS training programs are covered, along with several categories of chemical hazards. This section presents an approach to providing training using a series of lesson plans, slides, and quizzes. These lesson plans, slides, and quizzes are provided in appendices. Employers are encouraged to adapt this generic information to their workplaces. Additional appendices provide a glossary of commonly used terms and references that can provide additional information.

This guidance document provides a description of a suggested approach to training employees about chemical hazards. OSHA recognizes that many employers may not have the need for as comprehensive a training program as would result from implementation of all of the elements presented in the Model Training Program. The Agency hopes that such employers will find the portions of the Model Training Program that apply to their workplace to be useful.

This document is advisory in nature and informational in content. It does not alter or determine compliance responsibilities, which are set forth in the Hazard Communication Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200) and in the Occupational Safety and Health Act. Moreover, because interpretations and enforcement policy may change over time, the reader should consult current administrative interpretations and decisions by the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission and the courts for additional guidance on OSHA compliance requirements.

Material contained in this publication is in the public domain and may be reproduced, fully or partially, without permission of the Federal Government. Source credit is requested but not required.

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Why do we need a Model Training Program?

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration's (OSHA) Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) is designed to protect against chemical source illnesses and injuries by ensuring that employers and employees are provided with sufficient information to recognize chemical hazards and take appropriate protective measures. Employers are required to provide this information through comprehensive chemical hazard communication programs that include material safety data sheets (MSDSs), labels, and worker training. Employers may find it challenging to institute and maintain effective hazard communication training, either because of a lack of understanding of what kind of training is required, or because of a lack of knowledge on how to conduct effective training. This Model Training Program has been developed to help employers comply with the training requirements of the HCS.

I. What are the training requirements of the HCS?

We will look first at the overall purpose of the training program, and then at an explanation of the specific requirements.

1. Purpose of the Training Program

The purpose of hazard communication training is to explain and reinforce the information presented to employees through the written mediums of labels and material safety data sheets, and to apply this information in their workplace. Labels and material safety data sheets will only be successful when employees understand the information presented and are aware of the actions to be taken to avoid or minimize exposure, and thus the occurrence of adverse effects.

Training helps to integrate and classify the many pieces of information that relate to chemical hazard communication. In a typical workplace, a worker may be confronted with posted hazard warnings, signs, tags, incoming labels, workplace labels, material safety data sheets (MSDSs), manuals explaining the company hazard communication program, lists of chemicals, and information furnished by the union. This wide variety of communications will differ in format, content and reading level. These differences can obscure the important hazard communication message. Training can reduce this background "noise" by presenting the necessary information in a structured and logical manner.

Training sessions serve another important purpose - they provide a forum for employees to share their health and safety concerns, and to obtain answers from managers and occupational health and safety professionals. Employees can also share their ideas and job experiences - they often have acquired real expertise in dealing with potentially hazardous situations.

2. Specific Requirements

Paragraph (h) of the HCS addresses employee information and training. The requirements reflect the overall purpose of the standard. Some key words and phrases have been underlined:

a. First, employers should provide employees with effective information and training on hazardous chemicals in their work area at the time of their initial assignment, and whenever a new physical or health hazard that employees have not been previously trained about is introduced into their work area. Information and training may be designed to cover categories of hazards (such as flammability or carcinogenicity) or specific chemicals. Chemical-specific information must always be available through labels and material safety data sheets.

b. Second, employees shall be informed of:

the requirements of this section;
any operations in their work area where hazardous chemicals are present;
the location and availability of the written hazard communication program, including the required list of hazardous chemicals, and material safety data sheets required by this section.

c. Third, employee training shall include at least:

methods and observations that may be used to detect the presence or release of a hazardous chemical in the work area (such as monitoring conducted by the employer, continuous monitoring devices, visual appearance or odor of hazardous chemicals when being released, etc.);
the physical and health hazards of the chemicals in the work area;
the measures employees can take to protect themselves from these hazards, including specific procedures the employer has implemented to protect employees from exposure to hazardous chemicals, such as appropriate work practices, emergency procedures, and personal protective equipment to be used; and
the details of the hazard communication program developed by the employer, including an explanation of labels and material safety data sheets, and how employees can obtain and use the appropriate hazard information.

C. What do all these information and training requirements mean?

Let's look at the underlined words in turn.

Effective means that the information and training program must work. Employees must carry the knowledge from the training into their daily jobs. For example, if asked, they should know where hazardous chemicals are present in their work area, and should also know how to protect themselves.

In their work area means just what it says. The information and training must be specific to each work area. You can't stop at training about general hazards found in work areas; you have to address the potential hazards that employees are actually going to encounter.

Time of initial assignment. This means that new employees must be informed and trained before going on the job, so that they are not faced with unknown hazards.

New physical or health hazard. Sometimes new hazardous chemicals are introduced into the workplace, and sometimes employees are assigned to new jobs that involve potential exposure to new hazards. Either way, no employee should be in the position of encountering unfamiliar or unknown hazards.

Categories of hazards. OSHA is aware that many workplaces contain so many different chemicals that it would be difficult and confusing to attempt to train employees about each one separately. Fortunately, many chemicals fall into categories, such as flammables or acids and bases. In these instances, it is not only acceptable but also more effective to discuss the hazards of the category as a whole. If individual chemicals within a category present a special safety or health hazard, these unique properties must be pointed out.

Specific chemicals are those that don't belong in a category or should be singled out for some other reason. For example, they may present a special hazard, or be represented in great quantity in the workplace.

Chemical-specific information must always be available through labels and material safety data sheets. Whether categories or any other training method is selected, labels and MSDSs must always be available and accessible to employees at all times.

Informed. Providing information is not quite the same as training, but we have included both under the general term "training" in this Model Training Program. It means that employees must know what the standard means and where things are kept. Information can be furnished with the help of signs, notices, handouts, or other means. Whatever information measures are chosen, however, they must be effective. For example, employees should be able to tell you where the written program is housed, and also to locate the material safety data sheet collection.

Requirements of this section are simply the requirements of the HCS. It is a good idea here to inform the employees about the rights and responsibilities of the employer as well as the employee.

Operations in their work area. This phrase points again to the need to be specific in the information and training program. Generalities about operations that have no relevance to these specific employees are not sufficient.

Location and availability must again be specific. For example, the written hazard communication program may be kept in Building A or in the supervisor's office, where it must be available at all times. Employees should know exactly where it is and how to gain access.

Training. This term covers anything that is done to impart new knowledge or skills or to refresh employees' memories on previously learned knowledge or skills. It can best be imagined as bridging the gap between what employees know now and what they have to know to identify hazards and protect themselves against them. Many different training methods and media can be used to achieve this goal.

Methods and observations mean any active or passive means that can be used to detect the presence or release of a hazardous chemical. For example, some chemicals such as chlorine can be detected by their odor, color or other unique properties.

Physical and health hazards. These terms apply only to the physical and health hazards of chemicals. A physical hazard is associated with a chemical that is a combustible liquid, a compressed gas, explosive, flammable, an organic peroxide, an oxidizer, pyrophoric, unstable or water-reactive. All these can harm as a result of physical reaction. Health hazard means that exposure to the chemical can cause acute or chronic health effects. Examples are carcinogens and eye irritants.

Measures employees can take to protect themselves. These can include any control, including everything from learning the meaning of emergency signals to observing "No Entry" areas or selecting the correct personal protective equipment.

Details of the hazard communication program. This allows employees to learn what label statements mean, what information can be found in the material safety data sheet, and how to find out if a chemical presents a potential hazard.

The HCS contains further definitions in Paragraph (c).

D. What are some common problems encountered with training?

In the brief definition above, we said that to be effective, training must " work." Training sometimes does not work, for the following reasons:

Training is not the solution. This means that poor performance by employees is not due to a lack of knowledge and skills. Other actions, such as the implementation of engineering controls, might be the better answer.
Training is too generic. Instead of focusing on specific hazards in the workplace, some employers make the mistake of only showing videos that deal with industry situations in general. We will see later on how such videos can be incorporated into an effective program.
Special needs and preferences of adult learners are not taken into account. We will offer some suggestions later on how adult learners prefer to learn.
Inappropriate training methods and media are selected. Some employers have spent a great deal of money on training media that are not necessarily effective. Often, simple and inexpensive methods are more effective in achieving the goals of a hazard communication program.
There is no transfer of learning from the training setting to the job. This commonly occurs when the training is a "one-shot" deal, with no further follow up in the work setting.
No evaluation of training effectiveness is made. To make sure that training is achieving its goals, it is valuable to measure its effectiveness. This will tell you whether employees achieved the level of knowledge and skill that was expected. If they didn't, appropriate revisions can be made and the training can thus be improved.
Documentation of training is not adequate. Although there is no requirement to document training, it makes sense to maintain records. Recording class attendance is not enough; you also need to document what it was you set out to teach and how well you achieved it.

All of these issues will be addressed in Section II of the Model Training Program, which provides guidance on how to develop and administer an effective hazard communication training program.

E. What is in the Model Training Program, and how can it help me?

This Model Training Program is designed to help provide effective hazard communication training. In Section II we address the issue of effective and site-specific training. We have developed Guidance for Site-Specific Training, which follow and expand upon guidance that has been provided in OSHA's Voluntary Training Guidelines (OSHA 2254). Included are the steps that lead to an effective program, as well as a discussion about how to assist employees who lack basic skills. Using the guidance, you can develop and administer hazard communication training programs that are specific to your own workplace.

In Section III, we identify training components that are not site-specific and apply to all employees. These are topics that are "portable" - they can stay with an employee when he or she goes from one work site to another. We have made these topics into training "modules." They are self-contained lesson plans that you can use or adapt, as you choose. The Lesson Plans include visual aids that you can modify to reflect your site-specific hazard communication program. The visual aids can be printed out as handouts, made into overhead transparencies, or projected as a pdf file on screen. Also included at the end of each Lesson Plan is a quiz that you can print out for distribution. The Lesson Plans, which we have called General Elements, can be incorporated into your overall program, as discussed in Section II.

We have developed two kinds of General Elements. The first group covers topics that help employees to understand the HCS and the information that is communicated by MSDSs and labels. The second group covers four common chemical categories.

Lastly, we have added some Appendices. These include a section on where to go for further help, and a glossary of terms.

We hope that you will add your own ideas to the material supplied here.

II. Guidance for Site-Specific Training

A. What should I do first?

It is often necessary to prioritize hazard communication information and training needs. If you are responsible for a simple operation, using only one or two hazardous chemicals, it is not too difficult to plan your HCS information and training program. This is particularly true if your employee turnover is low. Employers, however, often use many different chemicals in their operations, and frequently hire new employees or transfer existing employees to new jobs. It is then necessary to prioritize training activities.

Prioritizing is easier if you do some homework first.

Prioritizing Hazard Communication Training

1. Use existing company records to define groups potentially exposed to hazardous chemicals:

Inventory of chemicals used, stored, or otherwise present in the workplace.
Index of MSDSs for hazardous materials.
Description of job tasks - gives information on potential exposures.
Further definitions of exposure groups obtained from industrial hygiene monitoring data.

2. Review previous training history:

Have all new employees been trained?
Have all employees assigned to new tasks, with potential new exposures, been trained?
What training has been conducted?
How often? How recently?
What was the content of training?
How effective was it? Do employees have the knowledge and/or skills to protect themselves against possible harm?

OSHA's Voluntary Training Guidelines suggest that employees can assist in this process by providing, "in writing, and in their own words, descriptions of their jobs. These should include the tasks performed, and the tools, materials and equipment used." It is also helpful to observe "employees at the work site as they perform tasks, asking about the work, and recording answers."

Let's look at a simple example:

George Foster is in the process of starting up a small manufacturing business. He has obtained MSDSs from the suppliers of the 10 potentially hazardous chemicals involved in the process, and has compiled an inventory. All 20 employees are new to the job. There is no record of their ever having received previous hazard communication training. George's prioritization task is fairly easy:

All employees potentially exposed to hazardous chemicals must be informed and trained before going on the job.
Five of the employees are office workers. There is little likelihood that they will ever be exposed to the chemicals. However, because the operation is small, and the office employees potentially may have errands in the work areas, George chooses to include them in basic information and training.
All 15 operations employees need basic information and training as well. They must be informed about such things as the location and availability of the written program. They also need to be trained about general hazard communication elements, such as understanding the HCS, understanding MSDSs, and understanding labels.
At the site-specific level, 10 of the employees will work in an Area A where only 6 of the chemicals are used. By studying the MSDSs, George realizes that 4 of these chemicals belong in the category of "flammables." They share common properties, and present the same type of hazard. He teaches about these as one category, remembering that the individual MSDS for each of the four still must be made available to employees.
The remaining 2 chemicals in Area A have different properties. George has to address each of these separately, using the MSDSs as an aid.
Of the 5 remaining employees, 2 work in Area B , where the 4 remaining chemicals present different hazards, and require site-specific training.
Three employees perform maintenance duties, and George is aware that they are potentially exposed to all hazards, since their duties take them into both areas. George decides to spend extra time with them.

George Foster's approach, based on these facts, is:

Give all employees the general information and training (see Section III for hazard communication General Elements for All Employees). The office workers should be encouraged to receive this immediately, but have lower priority if everyone cannot be accommodated in one session.
Provide separate sessions for the Area A and Area B employees, but include maintenance personnel in both.
For Area A, train employees about flammables (see Section III, General Elements-Chemical Information, for a Lesson Plan on flammables), using the individual MSDSs as reference and backup. Instruct about the two remaining chemicals separately, as they are used specifically at that site.
For Area B, give site-specific training about the 4 chemicals present in the area.
Make sure that all pertinent MSDSs are available and accessible during all operational hours to employees in each of the areas.
Add other elements for the maintenance employees, as needed.

This very simple example deals with a limited number of employees and chemical hazards. However, the same approach can be used in more complex situations.

B. How do I identify training needs?

Once you have made some general plans about training priorities, it is important to zero in on specific training needs. You need to diagnose the training task, and figure what types of learning are pertinent for effective results. There are three areas to consider. We will call them Task Analysis, Population Considerations, and Resource Considerations. They involve the following kinds of questions:

Task Analysis - What jobs are involved? What kinds of learning are appropriate?
Population Considerations - What are the characteristics of your workforce? For example, what are the educational levels and work experience of the employees?
Resource Considerations - What resources are available? For example, do you already have some training materials that could be used in the hazard communication training?

1. Task Analysis

a. Figuring who has to be trained about what.

In the Voluntary Training Guidelines, OSHA suggests that a job analysis be developed by examining engineering data on new equipment or the material safety data sheets (MSDSs) on unfamiliar substances. Another suggested option is to conduct a Job Hazard Analysis (see OSHA 3071). This is a procedure for studying and recording each step of a job, identifying existing or potential hazards, and determining the best way to perform the job in order to reduce or eliminate the risks. Information obtained from a Job Hazard Analysis can be used to identify which employees will need to be trained and also can generate content for the training activity.

For hazard communication training, however, the primary source of information is the MSDS, which spells out the type and extent of hazard for each chemical, in addition to all the measures that should be followed to protect employees and to deal with emergencies. Tying in the information on the MSDSs with a location by location inventory will show who has to be trained, and about what. Your job of determining the content of training is also made easier by the fact that all employees at potential risk from exposure to hazardous chemicals should receive training on the general elements, as described in the example of George Foster noted earlier.

b. Deciding on learning outcomes.

The second part of a task analysis is to look at the desired outcomes of training. We already have seen what the purpose and specific requirements are of the HCS. Now, you need to decide what types of learning output are appropriate. These decisions will have a major impact on the types of training methods and media you select, and also the cost. For example, do you want employees to know something, such as the location of the emergency shower, or do you want them to master some skill, such as donning a respirator? The training approach is quite different for these types of learning.

The term "knowledge" itself covers several different levels of complexity of learning. Although the HCS requires that workers be trained concerning the chemical hazards in their workplace, it is unproductive to try to teach workers to memorize the meanings of terms such as "teratogen." It is much more efficient to communicate the risks in everyday terms and to provide a glossary for reference purposes. Different levels of knowledge and skills are:

Recognition. The interpretation of warning signs is an example of a situation where the recognition level is appropriate. It would be foolish to require an employee to memorize all words on warning signs and to reproduce them, correctly spelled, in a quiz. It is better if the worker recognizes a sign saying DANGER and takes the appropriate action. The signs present images through the use of shapes, colors, and signal words that are meant to trigger certain actions, such as donning safety glasses. Training for recognition is simple to conduct once the purpose of the training is clearly identified. For training about signs, a discussion using color slides or a pamphlet containing pictures and explanations will be more effective than an elaborate chemistry or spelling program that misses the underlying purpose.

Discrimination. Discrimination requires an employee to know what a thing is or is not in comparison with other objects or situations. For example, many work facilities have a system of emergency audible alarms or whistles that indicate situations ranging from emergency evacuation to listen for further direction. Each signal is meaningful only in the context of the others. Similarly, discrimination is required in selecting the correct personal protective equipment to protect against different kinds of hazards. For example, a supervisor needs to consider all possible choices before deciding that in a situation involving exposures to both dusts and organic vapors, which of several types of chemical cartridges for a respirator would be most appropriate. The training in these instances should present the range of choices and give practice at comparing or contrasting them. Job aids such as charts or tables in which the characteristics are listed or shown pictorially are useful tools in teaching discrimination.

Understanding. Obviously, employees need to understand the HCS, the chemical hazards in the workplace, and the measures they and the employer should take to protect their health and safety. One of the biggest problems that employers have in implementing an HCS information and training program is their own understanding of this term. Some employers may incorrectly think, for example, that it means that they have to train workers to "understand" scientific terminology at the same level as a health professional. Some programs have attempted to teach employees to reproduce the origin and history of the MSDS, or to reproduce technical terms by rote memory. Such efforts are not only time-consuming and expensive - they are actually counterproductive. They bring unwanted "noise" to the true training goal. Instead of memorizing technical material, employees need to be able to recognize and understand the basics of important health and safety information. Reference guides and handouts are preferable to memorization in this context.

In other contexts, and for other tasks, the need to "understand" might require a different type of training activity. For example, using the MSDS to identify the correct types of extinguishing agents to use on different types of fires might, on closer examination, be a simple discrimination task, such as those described above. When the desired learning outcomes are clearly defined, the appropriate training methods will also become clear.

Skills. Skills training means that the employee has to "do" something rather than "know" something, although all skills training contains elements of knowledge. Skills training involves the actual performance, with guidance, of the target skill. It helps if the task is broken down into a series of steps, so that each step is mastered before the entire task is attempted.

Skills are acquired most effectively if:

the trainer gives an overview of the entire task, explaining essential nomenclature.
the trainer performs the task, describing the sequence as it progresses.
the employee performs the task, with guidance and reminders.
the employee practices alone, or with a coworker.
recognition is given for skill mastery.

2. Population Considerations

Assessment of the people to be trained is the second leg of the three-legged Training Needs Assessment stool. Training that is not appropriate to the characteristics of the employee population is always ineffective. Factors such as average age, educational level, and language difficulties will influence the way you do your training and the kinds of examples that you use.

a. Age and length of service.

An aging workforce can present special training challenges. The original training may have been conducted many years ago, and may not even be relevant today. Often, on-the-job training has consisted of watching an experienced worker perform the job, which may have resulted in picking up poor safety habits. On the other hand, experienced older workers are less likely to make mistakes made by new or newly assigned workers. They can be a resource to the trainer by giving good and bad examples of health and safety practices, and can be helpful in orienting new workers. They may be more comfortable with written manuals and instructions than younger workers who have grown up in the electronic age. Special concerns related to hearing loss or reduction of visual acuity may dictate a slightly different training approach.

b. Educational level and language differences.

Educational level, language differences and present level of job-specific knowledge will have a great impact upon the methods and media that you select for training. They should not act as barriers to effective communication about hazards. Trainers may encounter a range of educational levels. For example, if you are responsible for researchers in a laboratory, they tend to get bored and "turned off" by simple explanations of the HCS. On the other hand, many groups have limited reading and writing skills, or limited vocabularies due to language differences. Another common experience is to design a training program based on assumptions that employees lack knowledge, only to find that most of the employees already know most of the material. For an experienced group of workers, you may want to consider administering a "pre-quiz," using the quizzes that accompany each Lesson Plan. This way, you can establish their level of knowledge. You can thus avoid unnecessary duplication of training time and effort and focus in on the areas where they need help.

The lesson learned from these experiences is to gather as much information as possible about the employee population before developing the training. Questions to be asked include:

What are the educational levels of the employees? Would it be logical to use different training approaches for different groups, such as for laboratory researchers and other members of the workforce? You might investigate special computer assisted instruction programs for individual employees who may take longer to learn, or look at other options that will be discussed later.
Do all employees speak, read and write English adequately? If not, you will have to consider giving instruction to some employees in their native language, or using aids such as pictograms and signs.
How much work experience do employees have? Experienced workers can contribute to the HCS training of new employees.
What kind of training methods have been used successfully with this same group of employees for other training, such as job training or training to meet the requirements of other OSHA standards?
Is there any documentation of previous HCS training? This is an important point, since it cannot be assumed that prior training has occured.

3. Resource Considerations

Even the simplest training programs require some resources, in terms of time spent in training, availability of space, and materials. It is up to the manager or supervisor to come up with an HCS training program that is effective but uses resources efficiently. Major considerations are:

a. Budget.

Large companies usually have a budget assigned for training. Costs charged to this budget may include:

the research, training, and time of the persons who develop, present and document the training.
costs of outside consultants who assist with these functions.
manuals, handouts, purchased audiovisual packages and other materials.
equipment, training aids, and record-keeping systems.
extra costs, such as rented space for training sessions.
time taken to follow up on the effectiveness of training.
employees' on the job training time.

Smaller companies usually have smaller budgets. However, these employers can conduct effective HCS training by using several different strategies, which are described in Section II D 4, Selection of Methods and Media.

b. Location and shift work considerations.

Most health and safety in the real world has to be planned and conducted in the face of many physical constraints. The type of location, the presence or absence of training facilities, and scheduling problems are all important factors. As a " worst case" situation, consider the job of a trainer whose employees are strung out in very small groups along a pipeline, or in small marketing operations. Or think of the logistical problems presented when workers are captive on offshore oil drilling platforms for one or two weeks at a time, and are allowed to go home to towns all over the country on their off-duty weeks. An entirely different scenario is seen in manufacturing operations, where many employees are doing similar jobs, and can be trained in groups. Shift work also presents logistical and scheduling problems; companies who have presented training at the end of a shift usually have experienced difficulties in maintaining focus and interest.

These constraints have been overcome by ingenious planning. To return to the drilling platform example, oil companies have devised several strategies. One alternative has been to set up a regional or local training center, and to bring workers in from offshore for scheduled training. Another is to turn to techniques of individualized instruction, such as interactive video or other computer-assisted programs, self-paced paper-driven texts, or distance learning by satellite. Another option has been to appoint a traveling training coordinator who appears periodically to conduct all necessary training.

Whatever the constraints, many employers have adapted their training program to fit the unique needs of their workplace, and have been able to offer effective HCS training to their employees.

The three aspects of identifying training needs are summarized in the following checklist. You may want to expand on the checklist to reflect the characteristics of your own unique workplace.

Identifying Training Needs

Task Analysis:

___________________________________________________________________________

How many different chemical classes/substances are there in the work areas?
____________________________________________________________________________

Which chemical hazards are involved?
____________________________________________________________________________

How many different job classifications?
____________________________________________________________________________

How many employees in each classification?
____________________________________________________________________________

How often are new processes involving chemical hazards introduced?
____________________________________________________________________________

How often do you expect to receive new MSDSs?
____________________________________________________________________________

Do you have any potentially hazardous chemicals in non-labeled pipes?
__________________________________________________________________________

What General Elements are needed?
____________________________________________________________________________

What site-specific training is needed?
____________________________________________________________________________

What learning outcomes are needed?
____________________________________________________________________________

Information to be made available?
____________________________________________________________________

Knowledge?
___________________________________________________________________________

Skills?
___________________________________________________________________________

Population Considerations:

___________________________________________________________________________

What is the size of the group to be trained on any one topic?
____________________________________________________________________________

How many different groups do you have?
____________________________________________________________________________

What are the average ages of employees within the defined groups?
____________________________________________________________________________

What length of service?
____________________________________________________________________________

What is the rate of turnover (new hires, transfers)?
____________________________________________________________________________

What educational levels?
____________________________________________________________________________

Are there reading or learning difficulties?
____________________________________________________________________________

Are there language differences?
____________________________________________________________________________

How much work experience within groups?
____________________________________________________________________________

Is there any documentation of prior training?
____________________________________________________________________________

Resource Considerations:

___________________________________________________________________________

What is your budget?
____________________________________________________________________________

Do you have a room large enough to handle your groups? Do you have other options?
____________________________________________________________________________

What assistance will be available?
____________________________________________________________________________

What kinds of audiovisual aids are available?
____________________________________________________________________________

What existing programs might be used?
____________________________________________________________________________

What problems might you have in arranging the training (i.e., scheduling)?
___________________________________________________________________________

How will you handle the training of shift workers?

C. How do I prepare training goals and objectives?

Hazard communication training programs, like any other activity, are more effective if planned in detail. On-target programs that focus on precise and measurable objectives will be successful in meeting the requirements of the standard; unplanned and unfocused programs will not. OSHA, in the Voluntary Training Guidelines, defines three elements of a learning objective:

Performance must be observable. Employees must be able to demonstrate what they have learned.
Performance must be measurable. The objective should define what constitutes acceptable performance.
Conditions in which performance is to occur must be stated. Objectives should describe the important conditions under which the individual will demonstrate competence.

The following is an example of an objective that contains all three elements: "Given an MSDS (conditions), workers will point (observable) with 100% accuracy (measurable) to the location of the health hazard information, precautions for safe handling, and first aid information."

The objective should describe the desired practice or skill and its observable behavior in sufficient detail to allow other qualified persons or trainers to recognize when the desired behavior has been exhibited. The practical advantage in an industrial situation is that standardized training of equal quality can be presented to all workers in many different locations.

Learning objectives not only provide a road map and define what should be taught. They also act as a means of measurement that allows you to judge whether performance does, or does not, reach the desired goal. The more detailed the objectives, the easier it is for the trainer to "fine tune" the portions of the training that are not effective. Expensive retrofitting of entire programs can be avoided, and a consistent approach adopted by many different trainers.

To familiarize you with learning objectives, ten are listed below. Some meet the three criteria of observable, measurable, and states conditions, and some do not. Remember that "understanding" or "knowing" are internal processes that cannot be measured. Observable action verbs such as "list" or "point to" are preferable. Can you think what is needed to improve the deficient objectives?

Evaluating Learning Objectives

Do the objectives below contain the three elements of a well-stated objective?
		Yes	No
1.	Given an MSDS, employee will correctly locate at least three (3) pieces of designated information.	X
2.	Worker will understand the hazards of chemicals with which he or she works.		X
3.	Employee will know how to evacuate a work station in the event of a fire.		X
4.	Employee will list correctly the three (3) steps to take in reporting a leak or spill.	X
5.	Worker will match correctly the names of the three (3) routes of entry with their descriptions.	X
6.	Worker will have some understanding of the relative hazards of different classes of chemicals.		X
7.	In a true-false quiz, worker will correctly differentiate between the meanings of "acute" and "chronic."	X
8.	Employee will learn how to identify hazardous situations.		X
9.	Given a plot-plan of the facility, employee will point correctly to the location of the hazard communication written program.	X
10.	Following instruction in the ANSI signal words, worker will list in order from "high hazard" to "low hazard" the three (3) signal words "DANGER, "CAUTION," AND "WARNING."	X

You may not have time to write very detailed objectives, but it will certainly pay off in terms of training effectiveness if you devote thought to exactly what you want employees to be able to do. You will also avoid the mistake of buying attractive audiovisual programs that do not meet the site-specific needs of your workplace.

D. How do I put a program together?

Once you know what the learning objectives are, you can plan learning activities. There are several characteristics of hazard communication training to keep in mind. All the trainees are adults, who have different training needs and preferences than children in an educational setting. Within the total group, there may be wide differences in education and job experience, as we discussed earlier. Because we want the knowledge and skills acquired in training to be transferred to the job situation, you need to consider the sequencing of training to match up with job activities as much as possible. You have to make decisions about methods and media, based on the training needs and resources that you have identified and the objectives that you have defined. Lastly, you must view training as a continuing process, rather than a "one-shot" deal, so that the safe work practices and hazard communication knowledge are maintained on the job. Let's look at each of these in turn.

1. Adult Learners.

Unlike children in school, whose knowledge may not be needed or applied for many years, adults prefer and require training material that is directly relevant to their job and their workplace. For example, it would be inappropriate to give employees a long lecture on theories of toxicology - they want to hear what hazards and possible health effects they should personally be concerned about. They will quickly become "turned off" by teaching material that seems to have no application to them.

We also know that adult learners like to be shown the "big picture" of training goals, before getting into specific details. An overview of the goals of the HCS and the company response will be helpful to their understanding of what is to follow. They also should be informed about the broad outlines of the training plan

Adult learners often have a wealth of life and job experience behind them. They have much to offer to the training session, and an effective trainer will seek their active participation. For example, class members can give instances of "lessons learned" from their experiences of dealing with potentially hazardous chemicals. Useful items of information that emerge in the discussion can be included in future training sessions. In a question and answer session, concerns may be raised that lead to improvements in the hazard communication program or the health and safety program as a whole. Active participation and involvement by employees will help to ensure much better conformance to health and safety practices on the job.

2. Different Educational and Literacy Levels.

The educational levels and reading ability of workers can vary greatly from workplace to workplace, and among workers at any given workplace. Many adults may have difficulty reading hazard communication information. In addition to the literacy issue, hazard communication training involves words and concepts that are not familiar to the average worker, and are often new to employers as well.

The challenge for the trainer is to meet the goals of the HCS for people of all levels of education and literacy, even though some of the concepts are not simple. For example, some sections of the MSDS are intended principally for the information of a treating nurse or physician, while others are meaningful to the industrial hygienist or safety professional. It does not help that these documents are not yet in a common format, so that key information looks different and is sometimes located differently in MSDS from varied suppliers. Trainers have developed many ways to address these kinds of issues. Some examples are:

Providing a glossary of difficult terms that are found on MSDSs and labels. This way, employees do not have to memorize the terms - they can go and look them up.
Extracting the most important pieces of information from MSDSs and putting them on a single sheet or card in a common format. The cards can be mounted with the MSDS collection in each work area. Such cards for common chemicals or chemical categories are now commercially available. The original documents must, of course, still be available and accessible to employees.
Preparing mock-ups of common labels, tags, and warning signs and mounting them on a portable easel pad for training purposes.
Using pictograms to represent types and degrees of hazard, and appropriate personal protective equipment. The Hazardous Materials Information System (HMIS) and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) rating systems are commonly used.
Videotaping correct work practices or mock events, and using a "stopping the tape" technique to allow employees to practice putting the actions or events in the correct sequence.
Taking photos of work sites, signs, operations and people and showing the slides in the training session to make various training points. For example, you can show a fellow worker wearing the correct protective equipment in a hazard area.
Distributing handouts with pictures and explanations. Pamphlets and handouts of this type are commercially available, or they can be generated in-house.
Asking experienced bilingual employees to assist in coaching non-English-speaking employees.
Giving supplementary one-on-one instruction to employees who have difficulty in grasping some of the more difficult concepts.

All of these techniques have been employed effectively for hazard communication training. You may think of others that fit your own particular circumstances and resources.

3. Sequencing of Training

In combination with the prioritization issues that we have previously discussed, the sequence for hazard communication training usually goes as follows:

General elements - given to all employees identified as being at potential risk. These include: understanding the HCS; understanding MSDSs; understanding labels, and understanding health information. Lesson plans for these can be found in Section III of this document. They also include information on your hazard communication program, the location of the written program, and other facility-specific informational items required by the HCS and listed in Section I, the Introduction to this program.
General elements on chemical categories - given to subsets of employees who work with these categories in their specific work areas. Emphasis will be placed on the most hazardous chemicals and the jobs that are at greatest risk. Lesson plans for some common chemical categories appear in Section III.
Site-specific training on single chemicals that, although they may fall within a category, have unique hazards or are present in large amounts. Again, some of these chemicals may have a higher priority and require more training time than others. This section will help you address this task of site-specific training, since no packaged program will address hazards and conditions specific to your operations.

4. Selection of Methods and Media.

We know that training is most effective when it simulates the actual job as closely as possible. The closer the simulation, the easier it is for the worker to transfer knowledge and skills to the job.

a. Sequencing training activities.

It is therefore a good idea to arrange the objectives and training activities in a sequence that corresponds to the order in which the tasks are to be performed on the job. For example, if an employee is to learn the process of responding to a hazardous chemical leak or spill, a skill activity, the proper actions should be taught in the same order. Various training approaches, in order of descending effectiveness, are as follows:

the real thing (for example, handling a real label or protective equipment)
a simulation (for example, practicing the handling of simulated chemical spills using water or other harmless agents)
audiovisual representation (for example, a videotape showing a spill being handled)
visuals (such as pictures of appropriate protective equipment)
lectures
handouts

Handouts appear at the bottom of the list because there is no certainty that they will be studied or even opened when they are the only training approach. As supplements, however, handouts can be very valuable for purposes of reference and reminder. These can be useful tools for all health and safety training.

b. Methods and media options.

Selection of methods depends on the skills and/or knowledge that you are seeking as learning outcomes. Tasks that require group interaction or team response on the job require group-oriented learning activities such as team practice, role playing or small group problem-solving sessions. Tasks that require the individual acquisition of knowledge, such as learning to understand labels or MSDSs, can be taught to the group or by self-paced instruction, such as that provided by computer-assisted instruction. Whatever the method of instruction, the learning activities should be developed in such a way that the employees can clearly demonstrate that they have acquired the desired skills or knowledge. Within the constraints of available resources, selection of methods and media can include the use of:

lectures and discussions
small group practice exercises
individualized instruction via computer or hard copy
charts and diagrams
manuals, containing a summary of the material and a glossary or reference materials
slides, either purchased or taken at your facility
overhead transparencies, which can be prepared ahead of time or used as blank areas to record examples and suggestions from the group
PowerPoint slides, which can be used in the same way
videos, either purchased or home-made, to supplement instruction
a chalkboard or easel pads, to list key points or to record discussion points and questions
handouts.

Each of these methods and media have their own advantages and disadvantages, and are appropriate for different purposes. A survey of chemical manufacturers found that audiovisual aids such as videos and overhead transparencies, and on-the-job training were most commonly used, but the audiovisual aids were most probably accompanied by some type of lecture. Small companies usually cannot afford sophisticated training aids, and the "trainer" is someone who wears many hats. However, many small companies have managed to conduct effective hazard communication training by using several different strategies. These include:

"piggybacking" segments of HCS training on regularly scheduled safety meetings.
selecting one or more employees, usually supervisors, to be the "trainers", and making them responsible for the training after attending a "train-the-trainer" course.
developing home-made training aids, using slides or videos, to depict actual scenes of employees in the workplace and pictures of MSDSs and labels.
sending employees off-site to locally offered courses for training in the general elements.
combining HCS training with other courses required by regulations. For example, some basic elements of the OSHA HAZWOPER standard (29 CFR 1910.120) overlap with hazard communication, and it is possible to satisfy parts of both requirements at the same time. This also is helpful to the employees, since both refer to the same chemical hazards.
using free or low cost training materials made available through trade associations, unions, OSHA, and other sources.

These ideas have, in many cases, resulted in training programs that are equally as good as, and sometimes more effective than, expensive programs that do not meet the site-specific requirements of the HCS.

A brief summary of the pros and cons of common methods and media follows:

Methods and Media - Pros and Cons

Method	Pros	Cons
Lecture	Can cover lots of information Used with large and small groups Total control of information by lecturer	Doesn't encourage participation One-way communication limits understanding of learner needs Inappropriate for teaching skills No way of measuring whether learners comprehend
Discussion	Involves learners actively Instructor gets valuable feedback on learner needs Learners can discover new concepts Lea class="blueTen"rning climate is more relaxed	Can go off on tangents Requires skill in maintaining class control Open-ended questions must be carefully structured for discovery to occur Extra instructor assistance is needed to help when class is broken down into small groups
Demos	Relates information to the real world Attention-getting. Can be geared to learners' capabilities Excellent for skills training when accompanied by learner practice	Requires thorough preparation Should be limited to small groups or one-on-one (Closed circuit TV can be used for some demonstrations)
Small group activities	Can be used to break up large groups Builds group rapport Excellent opportunity to apply new knowledge Can simulate many real-world problems/situations	Practice activities must be structured in detail Dominant personalities may overwhelm less aggressive Group size may be restrictive - should be limited to 3-7 learners per small group
Independent study, Computer Assisted Instruction, Interactive Video, Distance Learning	Learners can proceed at their own speed Learner gets feedback on level of mastery Eliminates negative peer pressure CAI can be remote, yet connected to a central source Can interact without a keyboard CD-ROM adds realistic pictures and movement Employees increasingly familiar with computers	Highly dependent on quality of media used Absence of human interaction More effective for teaching knowledge than teaching skills Hardware/software can become outdated quickly Requires extensive development time Requires computer literacy
Overhead Trans-parencies	Very versatile Easy to produce on copy machine Simple to control and operate, inexpensive	Are large; require storage arrangements Information must be brief, or will be too difficult to read
35mm Slides	Easily handled and stored Flexible, adaptable Can be combined with taped narration for repeatability	Loose slides easily disorganized Requires photographic skills Commercially available programs not always relevant to your operations
Power Point/ Computer Projection	Extremely versatile -all Advantages of 35mm slides Can be easily modified/adapted Can be used in conjunction with distance learning	Requires computer literacy Equipment can be expensive initially
Videos	Permits same image to be played to large numbers of people at many locations Can be shot in-house to reflect site-specific operations	Image display limited to size of monitor Equipment standards not uniform worldwide Commercially available programs not always relevant
Blackboard, Chart Pad	Flexible for controlling discussion Excellent for emphasis Inexpensive	Not good for complicated topics Not good for keeping permanent records Possible loss of consistency from one group to the next

c. Purchased programs.

You may decide to purchase training programs to supplement your hazard communication training. If so, you should ask yourself the following questions:

Does this program meet precisely the needs I have identified?
If not, is there some built-in flexibility that will allow me to make appropriate modifications?
Could it be used to supplement what I already have, or for retraining?
Are there some data I can see that indicate that this program has been effective with groups of workers similar to these?
Is the vendor willing to give me names of previous clients, so that I can find out what they think of its effectiveness?
Can I preview all or part of the program?
Is there a Lesson Plan or Leader's Guide that will help me to administer the program?
Are there manuals or handouts for the employees that will help them to remember and apply the knowledge and/or skills?
Are there tests or quizzes that will help me to document our employees' understanding of the content of the program?

d. Combining methods and media.

Effective programs generally combine methods and media. Let's look at George Foster again. He has prioritized his hazard communication training activities, and knows who has to be trained about what. Since we saw him, he has assessed the training task, the characteristics of his employee population, and the resources available to him. He has prepared some simple learning objectives, and now has to make some decisions about methods and media. Once his decisions are made, he writes brief notes to himself to keep himself on track with each instructional session. His decisions are as follows:

20 employees are given training on the General Elements. George uses standardized Lesson Plans (see Section III), supplemented with overhead transparencies made on the copy machine. He plans to acquire equipment eventually that will allow him to show the same information in the form of computer-generated PowerPoint slides. He also shows a commercially available video on the HCS, and distributes a pamphlet that came with the video, containing the facts about the HCS. George makes notes to himself to incorporate information unique to his operation into the training session, such as the location of the inventory, MSDSs, and written program. He encourages discussion from the employees, and responds to their concerns. The training is conducted in several 20-minute sessions during new employee orientation.
Area A employees receive training on the chemical category "flammables." George uses a standardized Lesson Plan for this, but adds details pertinent to Area A operations. For the two chemicals with different properties, he shows the individual MSDSs as overhead transparencies for discussion purposes. He prepares a simple handout containing the objectives of the training, a summary of the information on flammables, and copies of the MSDSs. He includes the three maintenance people from Area B in this training session, since they are likely to encounter all hazards.
Area B employees receive training on the site-specific hazards in their area in the same way as Area A.
The three maintenance people also attend this session. However, George then takes the opportunity to spend extra time with the three employees with maintenance duties, to make sure that they have the "big picture" of all the potential hazards in the facility.
George documents all training, and realizes that he must follow up to check if employees have transferred their hazard communication knowledge and skills to the job.

Although George Foster's approach is simple and low cost, it is just as effective as programs using more expensive methods and media. It is probably more effective than generic "one-shot" training programs that do not target site-specific needs.

e. Summary

A table that summarizes the steps that lead to the selection of appropriate methods and media follows.

Summary of Steps in Methods and Media Selection

1. Define the resources: Note any limiting conditions for both development and implementation of the training program in terms of time, costs and resources available.

2. Define the size of the group: Decide whether you will have to conduct individual, small group or large group instruction.

3. Define population characteristics: Note educational levels, language preferences, and other considerations.

4. Define task characteristics: Note the types of desired learning outcomes.

5. List the learning objectives for the types of learning that you have defined.

6. Arrange the objectives in the desired sequence to simulate the job as closely as possible.

7. List the methods/media options from which a choice is to be made, and check the advantages and disadvantages of each.

8. Make final methods/media choices.

9. Write guidelines to the instructor for presenting the unit of instruction, including notes on instructional events, such as discussion sessions.

10. Write brief guidelines for the students if necessary, to assist them in using the media correctly; for example for computer-assisted instruction.

E. How do I conduct the training?

The following basic steps apply to the most common situation, where the trainer has limited time and resources, as well as to situations where high technology solutions are available. The first major activity involved in conducting training is preparation, which is essential to effective training. This includes the general preparation you need to make decisions about such things as the layout of the training room and the elimination of distractions, to the preparation of equipment and written materials. Following preparation, there are several steps involved in actually conducting the training.

1. General Preparation.

The general preparation factors that should be considered for training that will take place in a classroom setting are:

Physical layout. The training room should be large enough to accommodate comfortably the number of trainees expected plus the needed equipment and furniture. Effectiveness of instruction can be reduced by overcrowding. The shape of the room also can affect the acoustics, visibility, and the nature of the group interaction. Low ceilings with obstructions such as hanging lights are to be avoided; high ceilings (12 feet) are preferable, particularly when images are to be projected on a screen.
Physical conditions. Extremes of heat or cold and poor ventilation interfere with learning efficiency. High temperatures and humidity cause drowsiness; cold causes discomfort. The instructor should know where the controls are and how to operate them. Similarly, a poorly lit facility interferes with the readability of display surfaces and printed training materials, and can cause stress and fatigue. The learning process is also made more difficult if there are sources of disruption and distraction, such as announcements on a public address system. Using a cafeteria or public room may involve constant interruptions. In these cases, it may be better to arrange for other facilities.
Seating arrangements. The choice of seating arrangements will depend on the type of training session selected, the number of participants, the space available, and the learning objectives to be achieved. The way in which employees are seated will influence the degree of control the instructor has over the group, the level of interaction between the instructor and individual participants, and interaction between the participants. For example, a U-shape, V-shape or half-circle arrangement will tend to encourage group interactions because participants have eye contact with each other. A formal classroom setup will tend to discourage group interactions because everyone will be facing the instructor.

2. Specific Preparation.

Everyone who has conducted training has had the experience of having to deal with burned-out bulbs, a shortage of electrical outlets, and other unplanned training "glitches." These unpleasant experiences can be minimized by the use of a good checklist. Following is a suggested training room checklist.

Training Room Checklist

Physical layout:
	seating arrangement	___	acoustics	___
	illumination control	___	doors and exits	___
	other	___		___
Furniture:
	chairs	___	tables	___
	lectern	___	displays	___
	other	___
Projection equipment:
	overhead projector	___	remote controls	___
	slide projector	___	screen(s)	___
	computer/computer projector	___
	extra carousels	___	spare bulbs	___
	video playback	___	other	___
	window shading	___
Display writing surfaces:
	easels	___	pads	___
	chalkboard	___	wall space	___
	blank transparencies for overhead projection	___	other	___
Supplies:
	note pads	___	pens	___
	pointer	___	paper clips	___
	masking tape	___	chalk	___
	markers for transparencies	___	other	___
Training materials:
	lesson plans	___	handouts	___
	copies of quizzes	___	participant roster	___
	training certificates	___	other	___
Pre-function check:
	equipment operational		wiring covered/taped	___
	help resources (such as electrician) identified		room key obtained	___
			other	___

3. Conducting Training.

How you conduct training will, of course, depend upon the initial assessment of needs and the population and resource considerations that you have identified. Most hazard communication training will be addressed to issues specific to each workplace and will be conducted at the local level with small groups of employees. Time is usually available only in "chunks" of not more than 40 minutes, or the time normally devoted to a regular safety meeting. In any circumstances, the four activities involved in conducting training are overview, presentation, application, and practice or review.

a. Overview.

The overview is important to the adult learner. It should be designed to present the big picture into which the hazard communication training fits, and to present needed information to bring all trainees up to speed on your hazard communication program as a whole. For example, in introducing a session on methods and observations for detecting hazardous conditions, the instructor might spend a few minutes describing how this segment of training fits into the company hazard communication program as a whole.

The overview should also emphasize the importance and relevance of the material to be discussed. It should place the session in relation to past and future sessions and state clearly the expected learning outcomes. Examples related to the job experience of the employees will reinforce the message that the hazard communication training is job-related and important. Approximately 10% of the time available for short training sessions should be devoted to the overview.

b. Presentation.

When presenting material, it is best to start with known or simple information and proceed to the more complex facts. This should be done in small steps. Each step in the process should relate to the whole picture as well as to the other steps. Key points should be emphasized and demonstrations and visual aids used as appropriate. Active participation should also be encouraged and praised by the instructor. As stated in the OSHA Voluntary Training Guidelines, "Employees can become involved in the training process by participating in discussions, asking questions, contributing their knowledge and expertise, learning through hands-on experience, and through role-playing exercises." Using a variety of methods and media will also help employees retain information.

c. Application

The application step, most clearly defined in skills learning, gives the learner the opportunity to perform the skills in a supervised situation. For example, in a session on reporting on a leak or spill, the instructor's live demonstration of following a sequence of actions would be followed by an opportunity for the trainees to perform the sequence in the correct order. Another type of application exercise is to divide the class into small groups and to assign hazard communication -related problems for the groups to solve. Solutions to the problems should be based on the experience of the employees as well as on the material presented in the class. Errors can be checked and corrected and positive responses developed and praised in this context. Encouraging and positive comments by the instructor will spur the employees on to mastery of the knowledge or skill. Application activities relate the classroom instruction to the job and actively involve the employees in the acquisition of new knowledge and skills, as recommended by the Training Guidelines.

d. Review and practice.

Unlike a school setting, where there are study periods, instruction in the workplace does not give employees time to review their notes or assimilate what they have learned. Generally, they leave the training session and go straight back to work. This means that the instructor has to build in the review throughout the instructional sequence. If there are 5 major instructional objectives, for example, review is needed following each of the five course segments, as well as at the end. This is particularly critical in hazard communication training, which may contain many unfamiliar words and concepts. Cumulative review is necessary if the objectives represent building blocks that lead towards the desired new knowledge or skills. For example, if the idea of adverse health effects resulting from overexposure to a hazardous chemical is built on knowledge of routes of entry and acute versus chronic effects, review items should not be independent of each other. They should include the earlier concepts and show how they relate. Some ways to use review to help cement in new knowledge and to relate it to previously learned material are:

pair employees off, and ask them to observe and critique each other's performance at knowledge or skill tasks.
if videotapes are used, stop the tape at important points for purposes of review and discussion.
stop and ask questions at key points in a presentation.
employ a review "game" with small-group teams.
summarize the main points, and relate them to a real-life example of activities in the workplace.

F. How do I evaluate program effectiveness?

Many instructors think that they are through with their hazard communication training when they are finished with the training sessions. However, it is extremely important to gain an idea of whether the program is effective. It is more important where the HCS is concerned than for any other standard, since it is a "performance" standard. Program effectiveness is judged by whether it achieves its objectives and actually works. The information that you will gain from evaluation will be very useful, since you will be able to make changes that continually improve the effectiveness of the training. As a simple example of an easy-to-measure objective, either the employees will know where the emergency shower is, or they will not. Similarly, either employees will be able to follow correct evacuation procedures or they will not, and either they will be able to locate important information on the MSDS or they will not. Without an evaluation, you cannot know if training has been successful or has been completely off-target, nor will you know how to correct any problems.

Generally, evaluations are either formative or summative. Formative evaluations measure success during or immediately following training development and implementation; they tell the instructor what needs to be done immediately to improve the training. Summative evaluations measure whether the knowledge or skills have transferred to the job and other long-term results.

Questions answered by evaluations include:

Have I achieved the objectives of the training program, in terms of the immediate acquisition of knowledge or skills during class?
Do observations in the workplace show that the desired changes in knowledge and skills have been transferred to the job?
Can the positive changes, or lack of changes, be the result of the instructional program?
Is it likely that similar changes will occur for other employees taking this program in the future?
What can I do to improve the training program and make it more effective?

These are the five commonly used types of evaluations:

1. Participant Satisfaction (formative).

The participant satisfaction type of evaluation, such as opinion ratings of the training, is subjective. It is the easiest to conduct, but does not tell you what learning has occurred. It can, however, yield important information. Questions on the appropriateness of the training materials, the time taken to cover certain points, or the distractions of noise around the training room can reveal surprising answers and unanticipated problems. For example, if employees rate your presentation on chronic health effects as "too fast" or "too difficult to understand," another simpler approach emphasizing only the key points should be considered, or more time allocated.

2. Learning Outcomes (formative).

True/false tests and other quizzes are typical of the kind of measures that are given immediately following the training. They reveal how well employees have learned principles, skills, and other information. The test items are based on the learning objectives that were initially defined. For example, the objective "Given an MSDS, worker will point with 100% accuracy to the location of the safe handling precautions" would be turned into the test item: "Point to the safe handling information on this MSDS." Methods for measuring learning outcomes include paper and pencil or oral test items, job simulations, or any other activity that directly reflects the learning objectives. It is important to note that the items do not measure the learning abilities, or lack of abilities, of the employees. They measure the effectiveness of the program and the skill of the instructor. They are used only to upgrade and improve the program. This point should be emphasized to employees, who may feel that poor performance on a quiz will somehow affect promotional opportunities.

3. Attitude Changes (summative).

Attitude changes are generally measured by questions, surveys, interviews and observations. If the hazard communication training has been cooperative and encouraging, so that employees feel that the training has been a useful and positive experience, changes may be seen in their willingness to apply the new knowledge and skills on the job. Poor communication or discouragement of employee involvement in the hazard communication program may result in negative feelings and attitudes. Employee attitudes - their feelings about their job, their supervisor, and their workplace - directly affect behavior and can have a significant effect on performance. In turn, positive changes in behavior, such as the outcomes of effective instruction on working safely around hazardous chemicals, will result in more positive attitudes.

4. Job Performance Changes (summative).

Evaluations of job performance changes attempt to determine whether the employee has transferred new knowledge or skills acquired in the classroom to the work setting. This is important for all health and safety training, including hazard communication, since the goal is to have zero errors on the job. Methods include: observations of work practices; analysis of usage of required equipment, such as PPE; measurable results of specific training objectives; review of safety records before and after training; and comments from employees and supervisors describing significant changes in hazard communication-related behaviors.

5. Accomplishment of Organizational Goals (summative).

Although the primary goal of all health and safety training is protection of the worker, it is generally recognized that the organization also benefits greatly when the employees are knowledgeable about potential hazards in the workplace and have learned to work safely. Since every illness and injury has a direct effect on productivity and profitability, a reduction in such illnesses will have a significant effect. For example, the financial consequences of an acute overexposure of several employees to a toxic substance, or of chronic ill-health resulting from long-term repeated exposures, can be extremely severe. Achievement of organizational goals generally, or hazard communication goals in particular, is not easily attributable to training alone. However, as a key component of a successful hazard communication program, training should be given credit for much of the achievement.

G. What do I do with evaluation results?

1. Using Evaluation Results to Improve the Training.

A good evaluation will show exactly how your hazard communication training program needs to be improved. It will be clear that either the desired knowledge and skills have been achieved, or they have not. If some of the learning objectives have not been satisfied, the program must be revised and improved until they are achieved. Typically, you will be able to identify " weak spots" by the failure of most of the employees to answer correctly in a quiz. Sometimes, you will get feedback from participants' comments that will surprise you; concepts that are familiar to you may have been confusing to the employees. If the steps in the training process have been followed systematically, it is relatively simple to retrace the route to identify where improvements are needed.

A common mistake is to add more elaborate explanations where weak spots have been found, in an attempt to correct shortcomings in the program. Often, the deficiency is due to a lack of clarity rather than a shortage of explanation. Instead of adding more details and possibly increasing the confusion, the solution may be to restructure and simplify the materials, or link them in a more solid way to previously-taught concepts. Some initial objectives may have to be reexamined because they do not contribute to the goal of protecting employees. For example, the objective of teaching employees to spell terms such as "mutagenicity" may be redundant to the goal of training them to avoid contact with certain chemicals that are suspected mutagens. Another common error is to retain material in the course that is already known to employees because it has been covered in other training, and therefore could be omitted or simply linked to the prior training as a refresher item.

It is tempting to consider the hazard communication training as finished once your evaluation shows that it is effective. This is particularly true when a standard such as the HCS contains no specific requirement for retraining. However, the HCS, as a performance standard, requires that training be effective - all the time. Apart from the natural process of forgetting, changes in workplace procedures and practices and the introduction of new chemicals make it vital to maintain the training as a dynamic and ongoing process. Training should be reinforced constantly with reminders by supervisory personnel and with brief reviews during regularly-scheduled safety meetings, posters, hard-hat decals, handouts, and other methods. The knowledge and skills taught in the classroom should become habitual components of standard work practices.

Let's return to George Foster, who has now done his hazard communication training, following the plan outlined earlier. George gathered participants' comments on the training, and also administered a simple hazard communication quiz, and found the following:

The handouts seemed to take participants' attention away from points that George was making. Employees were examining the handouts instead of focusing on the points being made.

Solution: give out the handouts at the end, and use them as a review mechanism.
Employees in the back were not participating - one fell asleep.

Solution: make sure to include those employees in the discussion by asking questions about their experiences on the job.
The majority of the participants had real problems with one item on the quiz relating to the terms "TLV" and "TWA" on the MSDS.

Solution: George decided to put together a simple glossary of technical terms found in MSDSs.
Several employees asked questions about potential exposures to hazardous chemicals through their home activities and hobbies.

Solution: George was pleased to get these questions, which showed real interest. He was able to obtain pamphlets on safety in the home through the local Safety Council.
The training for Area A and Area B employees on site-specific hazards seemed to go well, and the immediate test results were good. However, when George followed up by observing activities on the job, he saw that the proper gloves were not being worn by one employee.

Solution: George found that there had been a misunderstanding, and gave one-on-one help to this employee. He continues to follow up.

This example illustrates some of the things that can be done to evaluate and improve a hazard communication training program. Every workplace is unique, and the problems and solutions will vary widely.

2. Retraining Issues.

The HCS, as a performance standard, has no specific retraining requirement. However, the name "performance" means that you should retrain when you find that employees are no longer retaining their hazard communication knowledge and skills. You may find that you need to retrain frequently to maintain the effectiveness of the program.

Retraining needs are often misunderstood - some employers think that they have to repeat the entire hazard communication training program. This may not be the case. Your evaluation results will be helpful in determining exactly how much retraining is needed. If you can document through evaluation measures that some or most knowledge and skill concepts have been retained, then there is no need to repeat those parts of the hazard communication training program. For example, if employees can tell you where the hazard communication written program is located, there is no need to repeat the information. Similarly, if they can satisfy your objectives that they know "methods and observations" that may be used to detect the presence or release of a hazardous chemical in the work area, there is no need to repeat the training program. This means that you have to keep following up on, and documenting, the effectiveness of the training program by observing employees on the job and reminding them about what they have learned.

3. Documentation.

The issue of retraining leads directly to the importance of documentation. Although documentation of training is not required under the HCS, it can be very useful for assuring that all employees receive the training they need.

Let's look again at George Foster and the hazard communication training that he has implemented at his facility. Although he did not use sophisticated training methods and media, it is apparent that he devoted considerable time and resources to developing, presenting, evaluating, and improving the training. At a minimum, George should document:

title of lesson.
date of presentation.
learning objectives.
training program outline.
names of participants, with an identifier such as Social Security number.
names of instructors.
data, such as test results, to demonstrate that objectives were met.

Paper copies of training records are hard to maintain, since employees have to be tracked from job to job within a company or facility. New training should be documented when new processes or new chemicals are introduced. Fortunately, it is now possible to purchase inexpensive and user-friendly software from sources such as the National Safety Council that tracks courses, employees, and instructors. The sign-up sheets from each training session can also be retained for direct documentation. Whatever method you select, make sure that you maintain documentation for all hazard communication training.

H. Summary

In this section of the Model Training Program, we have described the steps that will assist you in developing and implementing an effective hazard communication training program at your facility. The steps are:

Prioritizing HCS information and training needs.
Identifying training needs.
Preparing training goals and objectives.
Developing learning activities.
Conducting training.
Evaluating program effectiveness.
Improving programs continuously.

In the next section, Section III, you will find Lesson Plans that will be helpful in offering training on general elements that are common to all employees who fall under the HCS, and also on some common chemical categories

III. GENERAL ELEMENTS

A. Introduction

In the previous section, we explained how to develop and run an effective hazard communication training program. In this section, you will find a series of instructor Lesson Plans. You saw with the example of George Foster how the plans can be incorporated into your overall hazard communication training program. They are generic, and you will probably want to adapt them to reflect the details of your workplace and your hazard communication program.

The first four Lesson Plans cover topics that are common to all employees who fall under the HCS. The information is "portable," and can be carried from one work site where there are hazardous chemicals to any other.

The remainder deal with categories of chemicals. Under the HCS, you are allowed to instruct about categories, such as flammables, as long as you communicate about any uniquely hazardous properties of chemicals within the category. These Lesson Plans should be useful if you have groups of employees who are potentially exposed to several flammables or several chemicals in the other categories.

The four chemical categories represent one way of grouping chemical hazards; you may prefer another. "Toxic Chemicals," the last category, represents any substance whose main hazard characteristic is toxicity. Any of the substances that fall into the "Flammables and Combustibles," "Corrosives," and "Reactive Chemicals" groups can also be toxic. However, the main hazard characteristics in these groups are fire, chemical damage to living tissues, and reactivity, respectively.

The Lesson Plans are:

General Elements for All Employees

Understanding the Hazard Communication Standard
Understanding the Material Safety Data Sheet
Understanding Labels
Understanding Health Information

General Elements - Chemical Information
Flammables and Combustibles
Corrosives
Reactive Chemicals
Toxic Chemicals

B. How to Use the Lesson Plans

The first page of each Lesson Plan lists the lesson title; the intended audience; any prerequisites; the approximate time required; materials and equipment needed, and learning objectives. The format is outlined below.

Lesson A: Understanding the Hazard Communication Standard

Lesson Title: Intended Audience: Prerequisite: Time Required:
Materials and Equipment Needed	Learning Objectives

Lesson Title:

Title of subject covered.

Intended Audience:

Audience to whom lesson is geared (e.g., managers, at-risk workers, general employee population).

Prerequisites:

Knowledge, skills or other instruction that trainees should have attained before participating in this lesson.

Time Required:

Approximate time to complete lesson. This can vary widely, according to group size, additions that you may wish to make, and time available.

The second and subsequent pages of the Lesson Plans are Lesson Plan Worksheets. They are formatted to show the title of the lesson; the estimated time for covering each point; the subject outline; suggestions to the instructor on " what to Do" to teach about each item; and a column listing aids or cues for each item, such as "Slide Number 1."

A sample format follows:

Time	Subject Outline	What to Do	Aids/Cue
1:00	Introduction	Introduce: yourself Circulate attendance sheet	Slide No. 1: Title Slide

As you review the Lesson Plans, you will notice that the "what to Do" column contains action verbs underlined, such as discuss, describe, and list. Following these verbs are suggested explanations, descriptions and discussion points.

For every Lesson Plan there are choices on how to show slides. Slides can be projected in PowerPoint if you have a laptop computer and projection equipment. Or, they can be run off as paper copies that can be assembled and distributed as a handout. A third choice is to make them into overhead slides that can be reproduced on acetate to be shown as overhead transparencies, using an overhead projector. The slides are numbered; these numbers are indicated at the appropriate points in the "Aids/Cue" column as you proceed through the lesson. If you prefer, you can make your own slides, either in PowerPoint, or by typing them and copying on acetate, or by drawing directly on acetate. Whichever slide option you choose, you can always reinforce learning and make the training more effective by creating stapled paper handouts for employees. If Distance Learning technology is applied to these lessons, the slides can be made accessible to each employee as part of the lesson.

Finally, every Lesson Plan ends with a brief quiz. This can be reproduced and handed out at the end of class, or can be conducted orally for employees who have reading or language difficulties. Remember -- this is not a "test" of employee abilities. You can allow employees to refer to their handouts while responding to the quiz if you like -- your goal is to reinforce learning of the key points you have covered in class. If you add further objectives to the Lesson Plan, or wish to change objectives, make sure that these changes are reflected in the quiz. We suggest that you document the results of the quiz, and give extra help to employees who have difficulty with some of the items.

C. Preparation for Training

We suggest that you familiarize yourself thoroughly with each Lesson Plan prior to instruction. Make any changes that you wish; for example, you may want to show a commercially-available video that you have acquired, to give an overview or cover some special point. Also make sure that you have all the proper equipment and materials listed in the Lesson Plan. If you plan to use computer-projected slides or add videos, consider the following factors:

Are you familiar with the technical operation of the computer, projector, or VCR?
Will all participants be able to see the screen and/or hear the video? For a large group, two monitors may be necessary.
Is the room conducive to viewing slides or a video? Can it be darkened? Is there an adequate source of electrical power?

Other preparation points were covered in the previous section of the Model Training Program. As a reminder, training is best conducted in an area removed from plant noise and distractions, with good lighting and comfortable chairs. If you wish to promote discussion and participation, arrange the chairs so that participants can have eye contact with each other as well as with the instructor.

We also discussed some of the features of adult learning in the previous discussion. In summary:

Adults learn what they feel a need to learn. You should let them know what the knowledge can do for them.
Adults learn best when they need the knowledge now, and not some time in the distant future. Try to relate to current concerns on the job. Cut the theories and get to practical application.
Adults relate their learning to what they already know. If the new knowledge doesn't fit in with their experience, they will have difficulty accepting it. On the other hand, their experience can be valuable to the instructor as a rich source of examples.
Adults learn best in an informal environment. They dislike being treated like school children. Ask them to let you know if the discussion moves away from areas that interest them.
Adults respond to a variety of teaching methods. If you can, avoid a straight lecture format. Encourage discussion and participation.
Adults like to know how they are doing. They need reassurance that they are on the right track. Use sincere praise and guidance.

As you or other instructors become familiar with the Lesson Plans, you will see more ways to improve them and to adapt them to your own circumstances. We encourage you to do so. You can also use them as a model to write some of your own. Your Lesson Plans will become part of the documentation that you keep in the hazard communication written program to demonstrate your compliance with the employee information and training requirements of the HCS.

APPENDIX A

GLOSSARY OF TERMS COMMONLY USED
ON MSDSs AND LABELS

A

Absolute Gravity - Refers to the density or specific gravity of a fluid at standard conditions; for example, with gases, at 760 mm Hg (pressure) and 0 degrees Centigrade (temperature). Also known as absolute density.

ACGIH - American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists: an organization of professional personnel in governmental agencies or educational institutions engaged in occupational safety and health programs. ACGIH develops and publishes recommended occupational exposure limits (see "TLV") for hundreds of chemical substances and physical agents.

Acid - A compound which dissociates in water to form an anion and a hydronium ion. An acid reacts with a base or alkali to form a salt and water. An acid turns litmus paper to red.

Acute Effect - An adverse effect on a human or animal, with symptoms developing rapidly and coming quickly to crisis. Usually occurs following a single exposure to a chemical. Also see "chronic effect."

Acute Toxicity - The adverse (acute) effects resulting from a single dose of, or short exposure to, a substance.

Aerosol - An airborne solid or liquid substance.

Alkali - A compound that has the ability to neutralize an acid to form a salt. A substance that is bitter in a water solution, and somewhat irritating or corrosive to the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. This type of substance turns litmus paper to blue. Common strong alkalis are sodium and potassium hydroxide. Also known as "base."

Allergic Reaction - An abnormal physiologic response to a chemical or physical stimuli by a sensitive person. Some dermatitis and asthma-like symptoms result from allergic reactions.

Anesthetic Effect - The temporary loss of feeling induced by certain chemical agents, which reduce the ability to feel pain or other sensations. For example, hydrogen sulfide has an anesthetic effect on the olfactory nerve and thus reduces one's ability to smell the gas.

ANSI - American National Standards Institute. A private, nonprofit organization founded in 1918, it is the coordinator of voluntary standards activities in the United States. ANSI has issued voluntary guidelines for MSDS and labels.

APR - Air purifying respirators. These respirators remove contaminants by passing breathing air through a purifying element. There are two subclasses; (1) particulate APRs which use a mechanical filter element and (2) gas and vapor APRs which utilize chemical sorbents contained in a cartridge or canister.

Asphyxiant - A vapor or gas that can cause unconsciousness or death by suffocation (lack of oxygen). "Simple asphyxiants" are those asphyxiants which are harmful to the body only when they become so concentrated that they reduce oxygen in the air (normally about 21 percent) to dangerous levels (19.5 percent or less). Asphyxiation is one of the principal potential hazards of working in confined spaces. See "chemical asphyxiant."

Aspiration Hazard - The danger of drawing a fluid into the lungs and causing an inflammatory response to occur.

Autoignition Temperature - The lowest temperature at which a flammable gas or vapor-air mixture will spontaneously ignite without spark or flame. Vapors and gases will spontaneously ignite at a lower temperature in oxygen than in air. The autoignition temperature may also be influenced by the presence of catalytic substances.

Barrier Cream - See "protective cream."

Base - See "Alkali."

Blasting Agents - DOT (the U.S. Department of Transportation) Hazard Classification applied to those substances which have probability of accidental initiation owing to explosion or probability of transition from deflagration to detonation.

Boiling Point - The temperature at which a liquid changes to a vapor state, at a given pressure; usually expressed in degrees Fahrenheit at sea level pressure (760 mm Hg. or one atmosphere).

C, or Ceiling - The maximum allowable human exposure limit for an airborne substance; not to be exceeded, even momentarily. Also see "PEL" and "TLV."

Carbon Monoxide - A chemical asphyxiant: a colorless, practically odorless, flammable, and very toxic gas produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon compounds. Also a by-product of many chemical processes.

Carcinogen - A substance capable of causing or producing cancer.

C.A.S. - Chemical Abstracts Service: an organization operated by the American Chemical Society that indexes information published in "Chemical Abstracts" and provides index guides by which information about particular substances may be located in the Abstracts. C.A.S. Numbers - Identify specific chemicals.

Centigrade - (C) Also Celsius, the temperature scale in which there are 100 degrees between the freezing point (0 degree C) and the boiling point (100 degrees C) of water.

CFR - Code of Federal Regulations; the standards, regulations, and rules promulgated under U.S. law and published in the Federal Register.

Chemical Asphyxiant - Substances that prevent the body from receiving or using an adequate oxygen supply. Carbon monoxide and cyanide are examples.

Chemical Family - A group of compounds with related chemical and physical properties. Example: acetone, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), and methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) are three members of the "ketone" family.

Chemical Pneumonitis - Inflammation of the lungs, caused by accumulation of lung liquids following chemical irritation. See "aspiration hazard."

CHEMTREC - Chemical Transportation Emergency Center: a national center established by the Chemical Manufacturers Association (now the American Chemistry Council) to relay emergency information concerning specific chemicals that have been involved in a transportation emergency.

Chronic Effect - An adverse effect on a human or animal in which symptoms develop slowly following repeated, normally low level exposures to a chemical over a long period of time, or recur frequently.

Chronic Toxicity - Adverse (chronic) effects resulting from repeated doses of, or exposures to, a substance over a prolonged period of time.

CNS - Central nervous system, composed of the brain and spinal cord.

CNS Depression - Lowered sensitivity level or loss of sensation in the central nervous system, usually due to exposure to a particular chemical hazard or anesthetic.

CO₂ - Carbon dioxide; a colorless, nonflammable, and relatively nontoxic gas. Is produced by the combustion and decomposition of organic substances and as a by-product of many chemical processes. A simple asphyxiant at high concentrations.

COC - Cleveland Open Cup; a flash-point test method.

Cocarcinogen - Material that potentiates the effect of a carcinogen in the production of cancer. See also "carcinogen."

Coma - A state of deep unconsciousness from which one cannot be aroused, even by powerful stimulation.

Combustible - A substance capable of fueling a fire. Also a term used to classify certain liquids on the basis of their flash points. Also see "flammable."

Combustible Liquid - As defined by the Department of Transportation, it is any liquid having a flash point, as determined by a closed-cup method, equal to or greater than 100 degrees F and below 200 degrees F.

Concentration - The amount of a substance in a stated unit of a mixture or solution. Example: 2 parts per million hydrogen sulfide in air, or a 50 percent caustic solution.

Contaminated - The presence of any extraneous material that may render a substance, a material (such as clothing), or a surface (such as skin) impure.

Corneal/Conjunctival Burns - Burns to the transparent membrane covering the eyeball and lining the eyelids.

Corrosive; Corrosive Material - As defined by the Department of Transportation, a corrosive material is a liquid or solid that causes visible destruction or irreversible alterations in human skin (tissue) at the site of contact; or, in case of leakage from its packaging, a liquid that has a severe corrosion rate on steel.

Decomposition - Breakdown of a material or substance (by heat, chemical reaction, electrolysis, decay, or other processes) into simpler substances.

Dehydrating Agent - A substance capable of depleting body fluids or removing moisture from another material.

Dermal - Of or pertaining to the skin.

Dermal Sensitization - An exposure of an agent to skin which results in an immune response. Subsequent exposure will often induce a much stronger (secondary) immune response.

Dermal Toxicity - Adverse toxic effects resulting from skin exposure to a substance.

Dermatitis - Inflammation, irritation, or reddening of the skin.

DOL - U.S. Department of Labor: it includes the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), and other agencies.

DOT - U.S. Department of Transportation: it regulates transportation of chemicals and other hazardous and nonhazardous substances.

DOT Hazard Class - Classification by the U.S. Department of Transportation which describes the type of hazard that may be encountered in an emergency during transport. For example, flammable, combustible, poison.

Dry Chemical - A powdered fire-extinguishing agent specially treated so that it will flow properly. It may be used on fires involving flammable and combustible materials (class B and C fires). It extinguishes fires by stopping the progressive chemical reaction that take place during a fire.

Dusts - Solid particles generated by some mechanical process, such as crushing, grinding, abrasion, or blasting.

Effects of Overexposure - Clinical signs and symptoms that may occur or be experienced when one has been overexposed to concentrations of a particular substance above established exposure limits.

Emergency and First-Aid Procedures - This refers to the recommended first-aid procedures, based on the inherent toxicity of the product and the route of exposure to the product.

Erythema - A name applied to redness of the skin that may result from exposure to a substance or product.

Excepted from DOT Regulations - Hazard classification applied to substances that are not included in any of the other Department of Transportation hazard classes.

Explosion Hazard - A hazard that may result from exposure of a substance to heat or flame.

Explosive - Any chemical compound, mixture, or device, the primary or common purpose of which is to function by explosion, that is, with instantaneous release of gas and heat (energy). Also, any material having the properties of an explosive.

Explosive (Class A) - Department of Transportation hazard classification for those substances that pose a detonating or otherwise maximum explosion hazard.

Explosive (Class B) - Department of Transportation hazard classification for those substances that function by rapid combustion rather than by detonation. Includes some explosive devices such as special fireworks, flash powders.

Explosive (Class C) - Department of Transportation hazard classification for those types of manufactured articles containing Class A or Class B explosives, or both, as components but in restricted quantities. Minimum hazard.

Explosive Limits - The range of concentration of a flammable gas or vapor (percent by volume in air) in which explosion can occur if an ignition source is present. Also see "flammable limits," "LEL," and "UEL."

Exposure Limit - Limit set to minimize occupational exposure to a hazardous substance. Recommended occupational exposure limits used are American Conference of Governmental Industria