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This guideline summarizes pertinent information about soluble nickel compounds for workers and employers as well as for physicians, industrial hygienists, and other occupational safety and health professionals who may need such information to conduct effective occupational safety and health programs. Recommendations may be superseded by new developments in these fields; readers are therefore advised to regard these recommendations as general guidelines and to determine whether new information is available.
The general guidelines contained in this document apply to all of the soluble nickel compounds. Examples of such compounds include nickel chloride, nickel nitrate, nickel sulfate, and nickel acetate. For illustrative purposes, the physical and chemical properties of several soluble nickel compounds are presented below.
SUBSTANCE IDENTIFICATION Nickel chloride * Formula NiCl(2) * Structure (For Structure, see paper copy) * Synonyms Nickelous chloride, nickel (II) chloride, nickel dichloride, nickel (2+) chloride * Identifiers
Nickel chloride is an odorless, deliquescent, golden yellow powder or brown solid in the form of scales. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES * Physical data
* Formula N(2)NiO(6) * Structure (For Structure, see paper copy) * Synonyms Nickelous nitrate, nickel (II) nitrate, nickel dinitrate, nickel (2+) nitrate * Identifiers
Nickel nitrate is an odorless, green, deliquescent powder or crystalline substance. It is also commonly in the hexahydrate form. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES * Physical data
* Formula NiSO(4) * Structure (For Structure, see paper copy) * Synonyms Nickelous sulfate, nickel (II) sulfate, nickel disulfate, nickel (2+) sulfate * Identifiers
Nickel sulfate is an odorless, crystalline substance that commonly occurs in the form of hexahydrate or heptahydrate crystals. The anhydrous material is a yellow to green color, hexahydrate appears as a blue to pale-green, and the heptahydrate is green in color. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES * Physical data
The example soluble nickel compounds are not combustible. The National Fire Protection Association has assigned a flammability rating of 0 (minimal fire hazard) to nickel nitrate. The NFPA has not assigned the other example soluble nickel compounds flammability ratings.
EXPOSURE LIMITS * OSHA PEL The current Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure limit (PEL) for soluble nickel compounds (as Ni) is 1 milligram per cubic meter (mg/m(3)) of air as an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) concentration [29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z-1]. * NIOSH REL The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has established a recommended exposure limit (REL) for soluble nickel compounds (as Ni) of 0.015 mg/m(3) as a TWA for up to a 10-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek. NIOSH also considers these compounds potential occupational carcinogens [NIOSH 1992]. * ACGIH TLV The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has assigned soluble nickel compounds (as Ni) a threshold limit value (TLV) of 0.1 mg/m(3) as a TWA for a normal 8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek and indicates that these substances have been identified as suspected or confirmed human carcinogens [ACGIH 1994, p. 27]. * Rationale for Limits The NIOSH limit is based on the risk of lung and nasal cancer, and effects on the skin [NIOSH 1992]. The ACGIH limit is based on the risk of respiratory cancer [ACGIH 1991, p. 1073]. HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION * Routes of Exposure Exposure to soluble nickel compounds can occur through inhalation, ingestion, and eye or skin contact. * Summary of toxicology
* Emergency medical procedures: [NIOSH to supply] Rescue: Remove an incapacitated worker from further exposure and implement appropriate emergency procedures (e.g., those listed on the Material Safety Data Sheet required by OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard [29 CFR 1910.1200]). All workers should be familiar with emergency procedures, the location and proper use of emergency equipment, and methods of protecting themselves during rescue operations. EXPOSURE SOURCES AND CONTROL METHODS The following operations may involve soluble nickel compounds and lead to worker exposures to this substance:
Good sources of information about control methods are as follows:
OSHA is currently developing requirements for medical surveillance. When these requirements are promulgated, readers should refer to them for additional information and to determine whether employers whose employees are exposed to soluble nickel compounds are required to implement medical surveillance procedures. * Medical Screening Workers who may be exposed to chemical hazards should be monitored in a systematic program of medical surveillance that is intended to prevent occupational injury and disease. The program should include education of employers and workers about work-related hazards, early detection of adverse health effects, and referral of workers for diagnosis and treatment. The occurrence of disease or other work-related adverse health effects should prompt immediate evaluation of primary preventive measures (e.g., industrial hygiene monitoring, engineering controls, and personal protective equipment). A medical surveillance program is intended to supplement, not replace, such measures. To detect and control work-related health effects, medical evaluations should be performed (1) before job placement, (2) periodically during the term of employment, and (3) at the time of job transfer or termination. * Pre-placement medical evaluation Before a worker is placed in a job with a potential for exposure to soluble nickel compounds, a licensed health care professional should evaluate and document the worker's baseline health status with thorough medical, environmental, and occupational histories, a physical examination, and physiologic and laboratory tests appropriate for the anticipated occupational risks. These should concentrate on the function and integrity of the skin, liver, kidneys, and respiratory system. Medical surveillance for respiratory disease should be conducted using the principles and methods recommended by the American Thoracic Society. A pre-placement medical evaluation is recommended to assess medical conditions that may be aggravated or may result in increased risk when a worker is exposed to soluble nickel compounds at or below the prescribed exposure limit. The health care professional should consider the probable frequency, intensity, and duration of exposure as well as the nature and degree of any applicable medical condition. Such conditions (which should not be regarded as absolute contraindications to job placement) include a history and other findings consistent with diseases of the skin, liver, kidneys, or respiratory system. * Periodic medical evaluations Occupational health interviews and physical examinations should be performed at regular intervals during the employment period, as mandated by any applicable Federal, State, or local standard. Where no standard exists and the hazard is minimal, evaluations should be conducted every 3 to 5 years or as frequently as recommended by an experienced occupational health physician. Additional examinations may be necessary if a worker develops symptoms attributable to soluble nickel compounds exposure. The interviews, examinations, and medical screening tests should focus on identifying the adverse effects of soluble nickel compounds on the skin, liver, kidneys, or respiratory system. Current health status should be compared with the baseline health status of the individual worker or with expected values for a suitable reference population. * Termination medical evaluations The medical, environmental, and occupational history interviews, the physical examination, and selected physiologic or laboratory tests that were conducted at the time of placement should be repeated at the time of job transfer or termination to determine the worker's medical status at the end of his or her employment. Any changes in the worker's health status should be compared with those expected for a suitable reference population. Because occupational exposure to soluble nickel compounds may cause diseases with prolonged latent periods, the need for medical surveillance may extend well beyond the termination of employment. * Biological monitoring Biological monitoring involves sampling and analyzing body tissues or fluids to provide an index of exposure to a toxic substance or metabolite. Exposure to nickel can be measured in the using the NIOSH method for metals in urine (Method # 8310). This method requires analysis by inductively-coupled argon plasma, atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). However, no biological monitoring test acceptable for routine use has yet been developed for soluble nickel compounds [NIOSH 1994]. WORKPLACE MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT Determination of a worker's exposure to airborne soluble nickel compounds (as Ni) is made using a mixed cellulose ester filter (MCEF), 0.8 microns. Samples are collected at a maximum flow rate of 2.0 liters/minute until a minimum collection volume of 480 liters (or a maximum collection volume of 960 liters) is reached. The sample is then treated with deionized water. Analysis is conducted by atomic absorption spectroscopy. This method (ID-121) is described in the OSHA Computerized Information System [OSHA 1994] and is fully validated. A second OSHA method (OSHA ID-125G) can be used for nickel. This method requires analysis by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and is also fully validated. NIOSH also has a method that can be used to determine a worker's exposure to soluble nickel compounds (as Ni). This method (Method No. 7300-elements by ICP) also uses MCE filters, but flow rates vary from 1 to 4 liters per minute and the collection volumes range from 25 to 1000 liters. Analysis is conducted by inductively-coupled argon plasma, atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) [NIOSH 1994].
PERSONAL HYGIENE PROCEDURES If soluble nickel compounds contacts the skin, workers should immediately wash the affected areas with large amounts of soap and water. Clothing contaminated with soluble nickel compounds should be removed immediately, and provisions should be made for the safe removal of the chemical from the clothing. Persons laundering the clothes should be informed of the hazardous properties of soluble nickel compounds, particularly their potential for causing dermal irritation and sensitization. A worker who handles soluble nickel compounds should thoroughly wash hands, forearms, and face with soap and water before eating, using tobacco products, using toilet facilities, applying cosmetics, or taking medication. Workers should not eat, drink, use tobacco products, apply cosmetics, or take medication in areas where soluble nickel compounds or a solution containing soluble nickel compounds is handled, processed, or stored. STORAGE Soluble nickel compounds should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area in tightly sealed containers that are labeled in accordance with OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard [29 CFR 1910.1200]. Containers of soluble nickel compounds should be protected from physical damage and should be stored separately from strong acids, potassium, sulfur, combustibles, organics, or other readily oxidizable materials. SPILLS AND LEAKS In the event of a spill or leak involving soluble nickel compounds, persons not wearing protective equipment and clothing should be restricted from contaminated areas until cleanup has been completed. The following steps should be undertaken following a spill or leak:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requirements for emergency planning, reportable quantities of hazardous releases, community right-to-know, and hazardous waste management may change over time. Users are therefore advised to determine periodically whether new information is available. The EPA requirements for specific soluble nickel compounds may vary. As an example, the requirements outlined below are for the example compounds used in this document; nickel chloride, nickel nitrate, and nickel sulfate. * Emergency planning requirements The example soluble nickel compounds are not subject to EPA emergency planning requirements under the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) (Title III) in 42 USC 11022. * Reportable quantity requirements for hazardous releases A hazardous substance release is defined by EPA as any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging, injecting, escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing into the environment (including the abandonment or discarding of contaminated containers) of hazardous substances. In the event of a release that is above the reportable quantity for that chemical, employers are required to notify the proper Federal, State, and local authorities [40 CFR 355.40]. The reportable quantity of the example soluble nickel compounds is 100 pounds. If an amount equal to or greater than this quantity is released within a 24-hour period in a manner that will expose persons outside the facility, employers are required to do the following: - Notify the National Response Center immediately at (800) 424-8802 or at (202) 426-2675 in Washington, D.C. [40 CFR 302.6]. * Community right-to-know requirements Employers are not required by EPA in 40 CFR Part 372.30 to submit a Toxic Chemical Release Inventory form (Form R) to EPA reporting the amount of the example soluble nickel compounds emitted or released from their facility annually. * Hazardous waste management requirements EPA considers a waste to be hazardous if it exhibits any of the following characteristics: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity as defined in 40 CFR 261.21-261.24. Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) [40 USC 6901 et seq.], EPA has specifically listed many chemical wastes as hazardous. Although the example soluble nickel compounds are not specifically listed as a hazardous waste under RCRA, EPA requires employers to treat waste as hazardous if it exhibits any of the characteristics discussed above. Providing detailed information about the removal and disposal of specific chemicals is beyond the scope of this guideline. The U.S. Department of Transportation, EPA, and State and local regulations should be followed to ensure that removal, transport, and disposal of this substance are conducted in accordance with existing regulations. To be certain that chemical waste disposal meets EPA regulatory requirements, employers should address any questions to the RCRA hotline at (703) 412-9810 (in the Washington, D.C. area) or toll-free at (800) 424-9346 (outside Washington, D.C.). In addition, relevant State and local authorities should be contacted for information on any requirements they may have for the waste removal and disposal of this substance. RESPIRATORY PROTECTION * Conditions for respirator use Good industrial hygiene practice requires that engineering controls be used where feasible to reduce workplace concentrations of hazardous materials to the prescribed exposure limit. However, some situations may require the use of respirators to control exposure. Respirators must be worn if the ambient concentration of soluble nickel compounds exceeds prescribed exposure limits. Respirators may be used (1) before engineering controls have been installed, (2) during work operations such as maintenance or repair activities that involve unknown exposures, (3) during operations that require entry into tanks or closed vessels, and (4) during emergencies. Workers should only use respirators that have been approved by NIOSH and the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). * Respiratory protection program Employers should institute a complete respiratory protection program that, at a minimum, complies with the requirements of OSHA's Respiratory Protection Standard [29 CFR 1910.134]. Such a program must include respirator selection, an evaluation of the worker's ability to perform the work while wearing a respirator, the regular training of personnel, respirator fit testing, periodic workplace monitoring, and regular respirator maintenance, inspection, and cleaning. The implementation of an adequate respiratory protection program (including selection of the correct respirator) requires that a knowledgeable person be in charge of the program and that the program be evaluated regularly. For additional information on the selection and use of respirators and on the medical screening of respirator users, consult the latest edition of the NIOSH Respirator Decision Logic [NIOSH 1987b] and the NIOSH Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection [NIOSH 1987a]. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT Workers should use appropriate personal protective clothing and equipment that must be carefully selected, used, and maintained to be effective in preventing skin contact with soluble nickel compounds. The selection of the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) (e.g., gloves, sleeves, encapsulating suits) should be based on the extent of the worker's potential exposure to soluble nickel compounds. There are no published reports on the resistance of various materials to permeation by soluble nickel compounds. To evaluate the use of PPE materials with soluble nickel compounds, users should consult the best available performance data and manufacturers' recommendations. Significant differences have been demonstrated in the chemical resistance of generically similar PPE materials (e.g., butyl) produced by different manufacturers. In addition, the chemical resistance of a mixture may be significantly different from that of any of its neat components. Any chemical-resistant clothing that is used should be periodically evaluated to determine its effectiveness in preventing dermal contact. Safety showers and eye wash stations should be located close to operations that involve soluble nickel compounds. Splash-proof chemical safety goggles or face shields (20 to 30 cm long, minimum) should be worn during any operation in which a solvent, caustic, or other toxic substance may be splashed into the eyes. In addition to the possible need for wearing protective outer apparel (e.g., aprons, encapsulating suits), workers should wear work uniforms, coveralls, or similar full-body coverings that are laundered each day. Employers should provide lockers or other closed areas to store work and street clothing separately. Employers should collect work clothing at the end of each work shift and provide for its laundering. Laundry personnel should be informed about the potential hazards of handling contaminated clothing and instructed about measures to minimize their health risk. Protective clothing should be kept free of oil and grease and should be inspected and maintained regularly to preserve its effectiveness. Protective clothing may interfere with the body's heat dissipation, especially during hot weather or during work in hot or poorly ventilated work environments.
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