Disclaimer: These guidelines were developed under contract using generally accepted secondary sources. The protocol used by the contractor for surveying these data sources was developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the Department of Energy (DOE). The information contained in these guidelines is intended for reference purposes only. None of the agencies have conducted a comprehensive check of the information and data contained in these sources. It provides a summary of information about chemicals that workers may be exposed to in their workplaces. The secondary sources used for supplements 111 and 1V were published before 1992 and 1993, respectively, and for the remainder of the guidelines the secondary sources used were published before September 1996. This information may be superseded by new developments in the field of industrial hygiene. Therefore readers are advised to determine whether new information is available.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH GUIDELINE FOR DIOXANE

INTRODUCTION

This guideline summarizes pertinent information about dioxane for workers and employers as well as for physicians, industrial hygienists, and other occupational safety and health professionals who may need such information to conduct effective occupational safety and health programs. Recommendations may be superseded by new developments in these fields; readers are therefore advised to regard these recommendations as general guidelines and to determine whether new information is available.

SUBSTANCE IDENTIFICATION

* Formula

C(4)H(8)O(2)

* Structure

(For Structure, see paper copy)

* Synonyms

Diethylene dioxide; diethylene ether; 1,4-dioxacyclohexane; diethylene oxide; dioxyethylene ether; glycol ethylene ether; p-dioxane; 1,4-dioxane

* Identifiers

1. CAS No.: 123-91-1

2. RTECS No.: JG8225000

3. DOT UN: 1165 26

4. DOT label: Flammable Liquid

* Appearance and odor

Dioxane is a clear, colorless, flammable liquid with a mild, pleasant, ether-like odor. An air odor threshold concentration of 24 parts per million (ppm) parts of air has been reported.

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

* Physical data

1. Molecular weight: 88.1

2. Boiling point (at 760 mm Hg): 101 degrees C (213.8 degrees F)

3. Specific Gravity (water = 1): 1.03

4. Vapor density (air = 1 at boiling point of dioxane) 3.0

5. Melting point: 11.8 degrees C (53 degreesF)

6. Vapor pressure at 20 degrees C (68 degrees): 29 mm Hg

7. Solubility: Miscible with water, acetone, alcohols, ether, benzene, and many common solvents

8. Evaporation rate: Data not available.

* Reactivity

1. Conditions contributing to instability: Heat, sunlight, or flame.

2. Incompatibilities: Contact of dioxane with oxidizing agents. It reacts violently with hydrogen in the presence of Raney nickel (above 210 degrees C (410 degrees F)); with decaborane, which is impact-sensitive; with triethynylaluminum, which is sensitive to heating or drying; and with sulfur trioxide. There is a potentially explosive reaction with nitric acid in the presence of perchloric acid.

3. Hazardous decomposition products: Toxic vapors (such as carbon monoxide) may be released in a fire involving dioxane when dioxane undergoes thermal oxidative degradation.

4. Special precautions: Dioxane is hydroscopic and will produce peroxides in the presence of moisture. Dioxane-containing peroxides should not be distilled to dryness because of the potential explosion of non-volatile peroxides.

* Flammability

The National Fire Protection Association has assigned a flammability rating of 3 (severe fire hazard) to dioxane.

1. Flash point: 18.3 degrees C (65 degrees F) (open cup)

2. Autoignition temperature: 180 degrees C (356 degrees F)

3. Flammable limits in air (percent by volume): Lower, 2.0; upper, 22

4. Extinguishant: Dry chemical, carbon dioxide, or alcohol foam. Water spray may be ineffective in extinguishing fire but should be used to cool fire-exposed containers, to dilute and disperse vapors and liquid that have not ignited, and to protect persons attempting to stop the leak.

Fires involving dioxane should be fought upwind from the maximum distance possible. Keep unnecessary people away; isolate the hazard area and deny entry. Isolate the area for 1/2 mile in all directions if a tank, rail car, or tank truck is involved in the fire. For a massive fire in a cargo area, use unmanned hose holders or monitor nozzles; if this is impossible, withdraw from the area and let the fire burn. Emergency personnel should stay out of low areas and ventilate closed spaces before entering. Vapors may travel to a source of ignition and flash back. Vapors are an explosion and poison hazard indoors, outdoors, or in sewers. Containers of dioxane may explode in the heat of the fire and should be moved from the fire area if it is possible to do so safely. If this is not possible, cool fire exposed containers from the sides with water until well after the fire is out. Do not get water inside the containers. Stay away from the ends of containers. Personnel should withdraw immediately if a rising sound from a venting safety device is heard or if there is discoloration of a container due to fire. Firefighters should wear a full set of protective clothing and self-contained breathing apparatus when fighting fires involving dioxane.

EXPOSURE LIMITS

* OSHA PEL

The current Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure limit (PEL) for dioxane is 100 ppm (360 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m(3))) as an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) concentration. The OSHA PEL also bears a "Skin" notation, which indicates that the cutaneous route of exposure (including mucous membranes and eyes) contributes to overall exposure [29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z-1].

* NIOSH REL

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has established a recommended exposure limit (REL) for dioxane of 1 ppm (3.6 mg/m(3)) as a 30-minute ceiling. NIOSH also considers dioxane a potential occupational carcinogen [NIOSH 1992].

* ACGIH TLV

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has assigned dioxane a threshold limit value (TLV) of 25 ppm (90 mg/m(3)) as a TWA for a normal 8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek. The ACGIH also assigns a "Skin" notation to dioxane [ACGIH 1994, p. 20].

* Rationale for Limits

The NIOSH limit is based on the risk of potential for cancer, liver and kidney effects, and on the liver, lung, and nasal cavity tumors noted in animals [NIOSH 1992].

The ACGIH limit is based on the risk of liver and kidney effects and on the potential for absorption of toxic quantities through the skin [ACGIH 1991, p. 513].

HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION

* Routes of Exposure

Exposure to dioxane can occur through inhalation, ingestion, and eye or skin contact, and absorption through the skin [Sittig 1991, p. 676].

* Summary of toxicology

1. Effects on Animals: Dioxane is moderately toxic by inhalation and ingestion and mildly toxic by skin absorption. The oral LD(50) in rats is 4,200 mg/kg. The inhalation LC(50) for the same species is 46 g/m(3) for 2 hours. The dermal LD(50) in rabbits is 7,600 mg/kg [Sax and Lewis 1989]. Guinea pigs tolerate exposure to 2,000 ppm for several hours without symptoms [NLM 1992]. Guinea pigs exposed to 30,000 ppm dioxane developed narcosis within 3 hours and died within 2 days [Hathaway et al. 1991]. Animals exposed to 1,000 ppm for 3 hours a day for a total of 100 hours developed kidney and liver damage [Hathaway et al. 1991; ACGIH 1991]. Dogs fed a total of 3 g/kg of dioxane over a 9-day period died. A post-mortem examination revealed severe liver and kidney damage [ACGIH 1991]. Animals dying after acute exposures have shown injury to the brain, stomach, kidneys, and liver; respiratory failure is usually the cause of death [Clayton and Clayton 1982]. Liquid dioxane applied to rabbit and guinea pig skin is rapidly absorbed, producing incoordination and narcosis [Hathaway et al. 1991; Parmeggiani 1983]. Kidney and livery damage occurred in animals repeatedly exposed by application of dioxane to the skin [Clayton and Clayton 1982]. Dioxane applied to rabbit's eyes caused hyperemia and purulent conjunctivitis [Hathaway et al. 1991]. Dioxane is carcinogenic in rats and guinea pigs by oral administration, producing malignant tumors of the nasal cavity and liver in rats of both sexes, and tumors of the liver and gall bladder in male guinea pigs [Hathaway et al. 1991; ACGIH 1991]. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) considers the evidence for the carcinogenicity of dioxane to be sufficient in experimental animals [IARC 1987]. Dioxane is not mutagenic in bacterial test systems [NLM 1992].

2. Effects on Humans: Dioxane is an irritant of the eyes and mucous membranes. Prolonged exposure to dioxane is toxic to the liver and kidney. Exposure to concentrations of 300 ppm for 15 minutes caused transient eye, nose and throat irritation [Hathaway et al. 1991]. At 1,600 ppm, subjects reported burning of the eyes, and tearing after 10 minutes. Five workers died after an exposure to dioxane described as "heavy"; signs and symptoms included stomach pain, vomiting, anorexia, scanty urine, and coma. Autopsy revealed liver and kidney damage and edema of the lungs and brain. Another worker exposed for 1 week to a concentration of 208 to 605 ppm died after experiencing gastrointestinal pain, convulsions, and an increase in blood pressure; skin absorption may have contributed to this worker's overall exposure [Hathaway et al. 1991]. Chronic contact with liquid dioxane may cause dermatitis [Clayton and Clayton 1982]. An epidemiological study of workers exposed to levels of dioxane as high as 24 ppm for as long as 50 years has not shown an excess of cancer or other chronic disease [Hathaway et al. 1991]. IARC has determined that the data for evaluating the carcinogenicity of dioxane to humans is inadequate [IARC 1987].

* Signs and symptoms of exposure

1. Acute exposure: Acute exposure to dioxane results in irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. Persons exposed acutely may develop headache, dizziness, and drowsiness, and may have difficulty breathing. There can be nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, stomach pain, kidney failure, and liver damage [Sittig 1991; Genium 1989].

2. Chronic exposure: Chronic dermal exposure may result in irritation, dermatitis, eczema, drying, and cracking of the skin. Chronic, low dose exposure to dioxane may damage the liver and kidneys [Sitting 1991; Clayton and Clayton 1982; Sax and Lewis 1989].

EMERGENCY MEDICAL PROCEDURES

* Emergency medical procedures: [NIOSH to supply]

5. Rescue: Remove an incapacitated worker from further exposure and implement appropriate emergency procedures (e.g., those listed on the Material Safety Data Sheet required by OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard [29 CFR 1910.1200]). All workers should be familiar with emergency procedures, the location and proper use of emergency equipment, and methods of protecting themselves during rescue operations.

EXPOSURE SOURCES AND CONTROL METHODS

The following operations may involve dioxane and lead to worker exposures to this substance:

* The manufacture and transportation of dioxane
* Use as a solvent for fats, oils, ethyl cellulose, benzyl cellulose, cellulose acetate, and other cellulose esters and ethers, dyes, paints, polyvinyl polymers, varnishes, waxes, greases, natural and synthetic resins, and in the pulping of wood
* Use in paint and varnish strippers and as a degreaser
* Use as a wetting and dispersing agent in textile processing, dye baths, and stain and printing compositions
* Use in manufacture of detergents, adhesives, fumigants, emulsions, and cleaning preparations, and in manufacture of polishing compounds
* Use as a stabilizer for chlorinated solvents; in preparation of cosmetics and deodorants; and in purification of drugs
* Use as a working fluid for scintillation counter samples; for radioimmunoassay of glucagon; in molecular weight determinations; as a solvent to purify organic compounds; and as a dehydrating agent of histological slides

Methods that are effective in controlling worker exposures to dioxane, depending on the feasibility of implementation, are as follows:

* Process enclosure
* Local exhaust ventilation
* General dilution ventilation
* Personal protective equipment

Workers responding to a release or potential release of a hazardous substance must be protected as required by paragraph (q) of OSHA's Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard [29 CFR 1910.120].

Good sources of information about control methods are as follows:

1. ACGIH [1992]. Industrial ventilation--a manual of recommended practice. 21st ed. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.

2. Burton DJ [1986]. Industrial ventilation--a self study companion. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.

3. Alden JL, Kane JM [1982]. Design of industrial ventilation systems. New York, NY: Industrial Press, Inc.

4. Wadden RA, Scheff PA [1987]. Engineering design for control of workplace hazards. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

5. Plog BA [1988]. Fundamentals of industrial hygiene. Chicago, IL: National Safety Council.

MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE

OSHA is currently developing requirements for medical surveillance. When these requirements are promulgated, readers should refer to them for additional information and to determine whether employers whose employees are exposed to dioxane are required to implement medical surveillance procedures.

* Medical Screening

Workers who may be exposed to chemical hazards should be monitored in a systematic program of medical surveillance that is intended to prevent occupational injury and disease. The program should include education of employers and workers about work-related hazards, early detection of adverse health effects, and referral of workers for diagnosis and treatment. The occurrence of disease or other work-related adverse health effects should prompt immediate evaluation of primary preventive measures (e.g., industrial hygiene monitoring, of engineering controls, and personal protective equipment). A medica of surveillance program is intended to supplement, not replace, such of measures. To detect and control work-related health effects, medical of evaluations should be performed (1) before job placement, (2) of periodically during the term of employment, and (3) at the time of job transfer or termination.

* Preplacement medical evaluation

Before a worker is placed in a job with a potential for exposure to dioxane, a licensed health care professional should evaluate and document the worker's baseline health status with thorough medical, environmental, and occupational histories, a physical examination, and physiologic and laboratory tests appropriate for the anticipated occupational risks. These should concentrate on the function and integrity of the skin, liver, and kidneys.

A preplacement medical evaluation is recommended to assess medical conditions that may be aggravated or may result in increased risk when a worker is exposed to dioxane at or below the prescribed exposure limit. The health care professional should consider the probable frequency, intensity, and duration of exposure as well as the nature and degree of any applicable medical condition. Such conditions (which should not be regarded as absolute contraindications to job placement) include a history and other findings consistent with diseases of the skin, liver, and kidneys.

* Periodic medical evaluations

Occupational health interviews and physical examinations should be performed at regular intervals during the employment period, as mandated by any applicable Federal, State, or local standard. Where no standard exists and the hazard is minimal, evaluations should be conducted every 3 to 5 years or as frequently as recommended by an experienced occupational health physician. Additional examinations may be necessary if a worker develops symptoms attributable to dioxane exposure. The interviews, examinations, and medical screening tests should focus on identifying the adverse effects of dioxane on the skin, liver, or kidneys. Current health status should be compared with the baseline health status of the individual worker or with expected values for a suitable reference population.

* Termination medical evaluations

The medical, environmental, and occupational history interviews, the physical examination, and selected physiologic or laboratory tests that were conducted at the time of placement should be repeated at the time of job transfer or termination to determine the worker's medical status at the end of his or her employment. Any changes in the worker's health status should be compared with those expected for a suitable reference population. Because occupational exposure to dioxane may cause diseases with prolonged latent periods, the need for medical surveillance may extend well beyond the termination of employment.

* Biological monitoring

Biological monitoring involves sampling and analyzing body tissues or fluids to provide an index of exposure to a toxic substance or metabolite. Dioxane or its metabolite, beta-hydroxyethoxy acetic acid (HEAA) can be measured in the plasma. However, a more convenient procedure involves the determination of dioxane or HEAA in urine collected at the end of the shift. According to the kinetics of dioxane elimination, dioxane should not be detectable and HEAA should be present at very low levels in the urine collected just before the start of the shift in workers who are exposed on a daily basis to 50 ppm dioxane. Analysis of the samples can be performed by flame ionization gas chromatography.

WORKPLACE MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT

Determination of a worker's exposure to airborne dioxane is made using a charcoal tube (100/50 mg sections, 20/40 mesh). Samples are collected at a maximum flow rate of 0.2 liter/minute until a maximum collection volume of 15 liters is reached. The sample is then treated with 95:5 methylene chloride:methanol. Analysis is conducted by gas chromatography using a flame ionization detector (GC/FID). This method is described in the OSHA Computerized Information System [OSHA 1994] and is fully validated (it is based on the NIOSH Method No. 1602). NIOSH Method No. 1602 for dioxane is similar to the method described above except that it relies on carbon disulfide to extract the sample [NIOSH 1994].

PERSONAL HYGIENE PROCEDURES

If dioxane contacts the skin, workers should flush the affected areas immediately with plenty of water, followed by washing with soap and water.

Clothing contaminated with dioxane should be removed immediately, and provisions should be made for the safe removal of the chemical from the clothing. Persons laundering the clothes should be informed of the hazardous properties of dioxane.

A worker who handles dioxane should thoroughly wash hands, forearms, and face with soap and water before eating, using tobacco products, using toilet facilities, applying cosmetics, or taking medication.

Workers should not eat, drink, use tobacco products, apply cosmetics, or take medication in areas where dioxane or a solution containing dioxane is handled, processed, or stored.

STORAGE

Dioxane should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area in tightly sealed containers that are labeled in accordance with OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard [29 CFR 1910.1200]. Containers of dioxane should be protected from physical damage, and sources of heat or ignition and should be stored separately from oxidizing agents.

SPILLS AND LEAKS

In the event of a spill or leak involving dioxane, persons not wearing protective equipment and fully-encapsulating, vapor-protective clothing should be restricted from contaminated areas until cleanup has been completed. The following steps should be undertaken following a spill or leak:

1. Notify safety personnel.

2. Remove all sources of heat and ignition.

3. Do not touch the spilled material; stop the leak if it is possible to do so without risk.

4. Use non-sparking tools.

5. Water spray may be used to reduce vapors, but the spray may not prevent ignition in closed spaces. Do not flush spilled dioxane into sewers, waterways, or watersheds.

6. For small liquid spills, take up with sand or other noncombustible absorbent material and place into closed containers for later disposal.

7. For large liquid spills, build dikes far ahead of the spill to contain the dioxane for later reclamation or disposal.

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requirements for emergency planning, reportable quantities of hazardous releases, community right-to-know, and hazardous waste management may change over time. Users are therefore advised to determine periodically whether new information is available.

* Emergency planning requirements

Dioxane is not subject to EPA emergency planning requirements under the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) (Title III) in 42 USC 11022.

* Reportable quantity requirements for hazardous releases

A hazardous substance release is defined by EPA as any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging, injecting, escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing into the environment (including the abandonment or discarding of contaminated containers) of hazardous substances. In the event of a release that is above the reportable quantity for that chemical, employers are required to notify the proper Federal, State, and local authorities [40 CFR 355.40].

The reportable quantity of dioxane is 100 pounds. If an amount equal to or greater than this quantity is released within a 24-hour period in a manner that will expose persons outside the facility, employers are required to do the following:

- Notify the National Response Center immediately at (800) 424-8802 or at (202) 426-2675 in Washington, D.C. [40 CFR 302.6].

* Community right-to-know requirements

Employers who own or operate facilities in SIC codes 20 to 39 that employ 10 or more workers and that manufacture 25,000 pounds or more of dioxane per calendar year or otherwise use 10,000 pounds or more of dioxane per calendar year are required by EPA [40 CFR Part 372.30] to submit a Toxic Chemical Release Inventory form (Form R) to EPA reporting the amount of dioxane emitted or released from their facility annually.

* Hazardous waste management requirements

EPA considers a waste to be hazardous if it exhibits any of the following characteristics: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity as defined in 40 CFR 261.21-261.24. Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) [40 USC 6901 et seq.], EPA has specifically listed many chemical wastes as hazardous. Dioxane is listed as a hazardous waste under RCRA and has been assigned EPA Hazardous Waste No. U108. It is approved for land disposal after treatment and only if the concentration of dioxane in the waste or treatment residual does not exceed 170 mg/kg.

Providing detailed information about the removal and disposal of specific chemicals is beyond the scope of this guideline. The U.S. Department of Transportation, EPA, and State and local regulations should be followed to ensure that removal, transport, and disposal of this substance are conducted in accordance with existing regulations. To be certain that chemical waste disposal meets EPA regulatory requirements, employers should address any questions to the RCRA hotline at (703) 412-9810 (in the Washington, D.C. area) or toll-free at (800) 424-9346 (outside Washington, D.C.). In addition, relevant State and local authorities should be contacted for information on any requirements they may have for the waste removal and disposal of this substance.

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

* Conditions for respirator use

Good industrial hygiene practice requires that engineering controls be used where feasible to reduce workplace concentrations of hazardous materials to the prescribed exposure limit. However, some situations may require the use of respirators to control exposure. Respirators must be worn if the ambient concentration of dioxane exceeds prescribed exposure limits. Respirators may be used (1) before engineering controls have been installed, (2) during work operations such as maintenance or repair activities that involve unknown exposures, (3) during operations that require entry into tanks or closed vessels, and (4) during emergencies. Workers should only use respirators that have been approved by NIOSH and the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA).

* Respiratory protection program

Employers should institute a complete respiratory protection program that, at a minimum, complies with the requirements of OSHA's Respiratory Protection Standard [29 CFR 1910.134]. Such a program must include respirator selection, an evaluation of the worker's ability to perform the work while wearing a respirator, the regular training of personnel, respirator fit testing, periodic workplace monitoring, and regular respirator maintenance, inspection, and cleaning. The implementation of an adequate respiratory protection program (including selection of the correct respirator) requires that a knowledgeable person be in charge of the program and that the program be evaluated regularly. For additional information on the selection and use of respirators and on the medical screening of respirator users, consult the latest edition of the NIOSH Respirator Decision Logic [NIOSH 1987b] and the NIOSH Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection [NIOSH 1987a].

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Workers should use appropriate personal protective clothing and equipment that must be carefully selected, used, and maintained to be effective in preventing skin contact with dioxane. The selection of the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) (e.g., gloves, sleeves, encapsulating suits) should be based on the extent of the worker's potential exposure to dioxane. The resistance of various materials to permeation by dioxane is shown below:

(*) Not recommended, degradation may occur

To evaluate the use of these PPE materials with dioxane, users should consult the best available performance data and manufacturers' recommendations. Significant differences have been demonstrated in the chemical resistance of generically similar PPE materials (e.g., butyl) produced by different manufacturers. In addition, the chemical resistance of a mixture may be significantly different from that of any of its neat components.

Any chemical-resistant clothing that is used should be periodically evaluated to determine its effectiveness in preventing dermal contact. Safety showers and eye wash stations should be located close to operations that involve dioxane.

Splash-proof chemical safety goggles or face shields (20 to 30 cm long, minimum) should be worn during any operation in which a solvent, caustic, or other toxic substance may be splashed into the eyes.

In addition to the possible need for wearing protective outer apparel (e.g., aprons, encapsulating suits), workers should wear work uniforms, coveralls, or similar full-body coverings that are laundered each day. Employers should provide lockers or other closed areas to store work and street clothing separately. Employers should collect work clothing at the end of each work shift and provide for its laundering. Laundry personnel should be informed about the potential hazards of handling contaminated clothing and instructed about measures to minimize their health risk.

Protective clothing should be kept free of oil and grease and should be inspected and maintained regularly to preserve its effectiveness.

Protective clothing may interfere with the body's heat dissipation, especially during hot weather or during work in hot or poorly ventilated work environments.

REFERENCES

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