Agriculture is one of the most hazardous industries in the nation. Farming is one of the few industries in which the families (who often share the work and live on the premises) are also at risk for fatal and nonfatal injuries. Approximately 1,818,000 full-time workers were employed in production agriculture in the U.S. in 2008. Fatal injuries constitute a significant burden on the agricultural sector, as indicated by the 456 farmers and farm workers who died from a work-related injury for a fatality rate of 25.1 deaths per 100,000 workers during that same year. An estimated 1.12 million children and adolescents under 20 years of age resided on farms in 2006, with about 590,000 of these youth performing work on the farms. In addition to the youth who live on farms, an additional 307,000 children and adolescents were hired to work on U.S. farms in 2006. On average, 113 youth less than 20 years of age die annually from farm-related injuries (1995 -2002), with most of these deaths occurring to youth 16-19 years of age (34%). (Agricultural Safety. NIOSH Safety and Health Topic Page)

Agricultural operations is addressed in specific standards for agriculture and the general industry.

Standards

This section highlights OSHA standards, preambles to final rules (background to final rules), directives (instructions for compliance officers), standard interpretations (official letters of interpretation of the standards), and other federal standards related to agricultural operations.

OSHA

Note: Twenty-five states, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands have OSHA-approved State Plans and have adopted their own standards and enforcement policies. For the most part, these States adopt standards that are identical to Federal OSHA. However, some States have adopted different standards applicable to this topic or may have different enforcement policies.

Occupational Safety and Health Standards for Agriculture (29 CFR 1928)

• 1928.1, Purpose and scope
  
  
• 1928.21, Applicability of standards in 29 CFR part 1910
  
  
• 1928.51, Roll-over protective structures (ROPS) for agricultural tractors
  
  
• 1928.52, Protective frames for wheel-type agricultural tractors
  
  
• 1928.53, Protective enclosures for wheel-type agricultural tractors
  
  
• 1928.57, Guarding of farm field equipment, farmstead equipment, and cotton gins
  
  
• 1928.110, Field sanitation
  
  
• 1928.1027, Cadmium

General Industry (29 CFR 1910)

• 1910.111, Storage and handling of anhydrous ammonia
  
  • 1910.111(a), General
  • 1910.111(b), Basic rules
    
    
• 1910.142, Temporary labor camps
  
  
• 1910.145, Specifications for accident prevention signs and tags
  • 1910.145(f), Accident prevention tags
    • Appendix A, Recommended color coding
    • Appendix B, References for further information
      
      
• 1910.266, Logging operations [related topic page]
  • Appendix A, First-aid kits (Mandatory)
  • Appendix B, First-aid and CPR training (Mandatory)
  • Appendix C, Comparable ISO standards (Non-mandatory)
    
    
• 1910.1200, Hazard communication [related topic page]
  • Appendix A, Health hazard definitions (Mandatory)
  • Appendix B, Hazard determination (Mandatory)
  • Appendix C, Information sources (Advisory) [removed]
  • Appendix D, Definition of "trade secret" (Mandatory)
  • Appendix E, Guidelines for employer compliance (Advisory)
    
    
• 1910.1201, Retention of DOT markings, placards, and labels
  
  
• 1910.1027, Cadmium [related topic page]
  • Appendix A, Substance safety data sheet - cadmium
  • Appendix B, Substances technical guidelines for cadmium
  • Appendix C, Qualitative and quantitative fit testing procedures [reserved]
  • Appendix D, Occupational health history interview with reference to cadmium exposure
  • Appendix E, Cadmium in workplace atmospheres
  • Appendix F, Non-mandatory protocol for biological monitoring

Preambles to Final Rules

• Cadmium (1992)
  • IX. Summary and Explanation of the Final Cadmium Standard for General Industries, Agriculture, and Maritime
    
    
• Search all available preambles to final rules.

Directives

• Guidelines for Implementing the Field Sanitation Standard. CPL 02-02-042 [CPL 2-2.42], (1992, June 22).
  
  
• Field Sanitation; Final Rule. CSP 01-01-019 [STP 2-1.138], (1987, September 21).
  
  
• 29 CFR 1910.145(d)(10), Slow-moving Vehicle Emblem Requirements. STD 01-07-002 [STD 1-7.2], (1978, October 30).
  
  
• Interpretations of: (a)-29 CFR 1928.51(a), Definitions "Agricultural Tractor." (b)-29 CFR 1928.51(b)(1), Rollover. STD 04-00-001 [STD 4.1], (1978, October 30).
  
  
• Low Profile Tractor. STD 04-00-002 [STD 4.2], (1978, October 30).
  
  
• Search all available directives.

Standard Interpretations

• OSHA Asbestos standard. (1997, February 5).
  
  
• Letter requesting that OSHA exempt animal feed ingredients from the requirements of 29 CFR 1910.1200, the Hazard Communication Standard. (1995, September 18).
  
  
• Farming Appropriations Rider. (1992, July 22).
  
  
• Oregon Interagency Migrant Labor Camp Enforcement Agreement. (1991, April 9).
  
  
• Interpretation of 1928.110(a) defining "Field Worker". (1989, February 6).
  
  
• Temporary Labor Camp Standard regarding range production of livestock. (1988, April 12).
  
  
• OSHA requirement for guarding power take-off (PTO) shafts on agricultural equipment. (1983, June 28).
  
  
• Hearing conservation amendment does not cover construction or agriculture. (1983, March 29).
  
  
• Clarification of the classification of the aquaculture industries for OSHA enforcement purposes. (1982, September 28).
  
  
• "Electrical Disconnect Means" as they relate to center pivot irrigation systems. (1976, December 17).
  
  
• Guarding of cotton ginning equipment standards. (1976, August 30).
  
  
• Guarding of Farm Field Equipment, Farmstead Equipment, and Cotton Gins. (1976, July 2).

Field Sanitation Standard

• Field Sanitation Standard. (1991, October 31).
  
  
• Applicability of Field Sanitation Standard to Reforestation Activities. (1990, July 30).
  
  
• The Field Sanitation Standard, as it relates to the number of workers excluded from coverage. (1990, May 22).
  
  
• OSHA enforcement of the Field Sanitation Standard and the Hazard Communication Standard with respect to pesticides. (1990, May 16).
  
  
• Applicability of the Field Sanitation Standard. (1989, November 6).
  
  
• Policy change regarding the scope of coverage of the field sanitation standard. (1989, September 5).

Rollover Protection Standard

• Rollover Protective Structures (ROPS) used on agricultural wheeled tractors. (1991, November 5).
  
  
• Differences between the various standards for Rollover Protective Structures used on agricultural wheeled tractors. (1991, October 25).
  
  
• SAE J2194 standard for Agricultural Tractor Rollover Protective Structures (ROPS). (1989, February 6).
  
  
• Clarification of roll-over protective structures (ROPS) for tractors used in agricultural operations. (1981, October 22).
  
  
• Rollover Protective Structures on skid-steer loaders used in agricultural operations. (1976, April 6).

• Search all available standard interpretations.

Other Federal

Note: These are NOT OSHA regulations. However, they do provide guidance from their originating organizations related to worker protection.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

• 40 CFR Part 170, Worker protection standard

Hazards and Solutions

Accidental death rates in US agriculture have been consistently near 50 per 100,000 workers for several decades; temporarily disabling accident rates are estimated at over 5%; and the overall injury and illness rate at nearly 13%⁽¹⁴⁾. The acute safety hazards listed in Table 1 create a pattern of fatal accidents typified by the data shown in Table 3. The following references aid in recognizing and evaluating hazards associated with agricultural operations in the workplace.

In addition to its unique processes, agriculture is also unlike general industry socially, economically, psychologically, and geographically. Examples of major differences include:^(8,9)

• The workplace and the residence are co-located. Thus, the hours of work are as long as necessary, and many of the hazards that affect the producer also affect the family, including the children⁽¹⁰⁾.
  
  
• As self-employers or very small businesses, there is little or no distinction between management and labor, few legal or pre-selection barriers to entry such as age, sex or even ability (versus desire), and no employee benefits such as sick leave, medical insurance, or workers compensation⁽⁹⁾.
  
  
• The intrinsically "risky" nature of agriculture as a business coupled with the inability of the farmer to change prices to reflect costs provides limited incentives to purchase, install, or maintain preventive safety and health controls⁽⁹⁾.
  
  
• Agriculture is a geographically dispersed industry with many small "factories" spread over a broad region, inhibiting epidemiologic surveillance or "recognition" of hazards and the provision of prevention and rehabilitation services^(5,11).
  
  
• The psychological stoic self-image of farming as an independent lifestyle rather than a business further inhibits acceptance of outside preventive services⁽³¹⁾.
  
  
• Coupled with these characteristics is the recently rapid rate with which farmers and traditionally farming families are leaving the industry^(2,4,12,13).

Ergonomics

• Ergonomic agents in Table 1 create an array of common chronic musculoskeletal injuries among agricultural workers^(16,17), in addition to some specific injuries such as "Milker's Knee" among dairy farmers⁽¹⁸⁾ and osteoarthritis of the hip among tractor drivers⁽¹⁹⁾.
  
  
• Simple Solutions: Ergonomics for Farm Workers. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 2001-111, (2001, February). Also available as a 2 MB PDF, 53 pages. A 2 MB PDF, 54 pages (Spanish version) is also available. Provides information about early intervention to prevent injuries. Directed toward growers, safety specialists, human resources managers or anyone with an interest in having safe farms.
  
  
• Ergonomics. OSHA Safety and Health Topics Page.

Noise

• Noise is a common hazardous physical agent with perhaps a third of farmers experiencing time weighted average (TWA) noise above 90 dBA⁽²⁰⁾, and several categories of sources in the 100-110 dBA range⁽⁸⁾. Noise induced hearing loss is very common among farmers^(21,22). The elevated incidence of heat stroke is not well studied⁽²³⁾. Both whole body vibration⁽²⁴⁾ and segmental vibration⁽²⁵⁾ are prevalent among farmers; the technology to reduce whole body vibration is available on newer equipment⁽²⁶⁾.
  
  
• Noise and Hearing Conservation. OSHA eTool. Provides a comprehensive hazard assessment, information about selecting protective devices for the workplace, as well as OSHA requirements.
  
  
• Occupational Noise Exposure. OSHA Safety and Health Topics Page.

Respiratory

• A wide range of morbidity and mortality findings suggests that respiratory diseases from many of the biological and chemical agents listed in Table 1 may represent the greatest health hazard to farmers⁽³⁵⁾.
  
  
  • Respiratory hazards range from acute to chronic air contaminants. The settings include poultry barns^(36,37), swine barns^(38,39), hydrogen sulfide from manure pits^(38,40,41), and carbon dioxide⁽⁴²⁾ and nitrogen dioxide^(43,44) in silo gas.
    
    
  • Agricultural aerosols can present both chronic hazards from crystalline free-silica (quartz)⁽⁴⁵⁾ and silicate⁽⁴⁶⁾ components of inorganic dusts^(45,47), as well as acute hazards from coccidioidomycosis⁽⁴⁸⁾, soil-borne fungi⁽⁴⁹⁾, and microbial toxins like endotoxin⁽⁵⁰⁾ and aflatoxin⁽⁵¹⁾.
    
    
  • Inorganic dust is a complex mixture associated with such non-specific respiratory diseases as atopic asthma, occupational asthma, and bronchitis⁽⁵²⁾, as well as the more agricultural specific diseases called Farmer's Lung and Organic Dust Toxic Syndrome [ODTS]^(50,52).
    
    
  • Control of aerosols might include the enclosure and ventilation of tractors⁽⁴⁷⁾, applying moisture to friable material⁽⁵⁰⁾, and respirators⁽⁵³⁾.
    
    
  • Control of Organic Dusts From Bedding Choppers in Dairy Barns. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-103, (1997, April).
    
    
  • Cotton Dust. OSHA Safety and Health Topics Page.
    
    
  • Respiratory Protection. OSHA eTool. Offers expert assistance to businesses seeking to comply with the new respiratory protection standard 29 CFR 1910.134. Provides information on the development of respirator cartridge change schedules. Addresses respirator selection, and other requirements of the standard.
    
    
  • Respiratory Protection. OSHA Safety and Health Topics Page.
    
    
  • Ventilation. OSHA Safety and Health Topics Page.

Chemicals

• While chemical pesticides and fertilizers can present hazards when misused, they represent only a narrow spectrum of the occupational risks within agriculture listed in Table 1. Reviews of pesticide toxicities are readily available (e.g. M. Moses: "Pesticides"⁽⁵⁴⁾), the industrial hygiene aspects of their use practices levels of exposure and the efficacy of exposure controls are less accessible. Pesticides can present a hazard to applicators^(55,56), to harvesters reentering a sprayed field^(57,58), and to rural residents via air, ground water, and food. Methods to assess exposure include direct methods via dermal patches^(55-59), skin washes⁽⁵⁹⁾, and fluorescent tracers⁽⁶⁰⁾. Exposure can also be assessed indirectly via biochemical responses such as a change in cholinesterase activity^(57,61,62) and urinary excretion^(57,62,63). Guidelines for cholinesterase monitoring and diagnosis of organophosphorus (OP) poisoning are well established⁽⁶²⁾.
  
  
• Broadly speaking, variations in exposures are unrelated to the particular chemical being used but do vary with the pesticide formulation and concentration, application process and equipment, clothing worn, and personal techniques⁽⁵⁶⁾.
  
  
• Exposure controls include personal protection, particularly clothing and gloves rather than respirators^(56,60), and engineering/mechanical controls^(47,64).
  
  
• OSHA's Field Sanitation Standard. OSHA Fact Sheet No. 92-25, (1992).
  
  
• Occupational Health and Safety [189 KB PDF, 3 pages]. National Center for Farmworker Health, Inc. (NCFH).
  
  
• Worker Protection Standard for Agricultural Pesticides. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), (1993). Provides a table of contents with links to the entire document.
  
  
• Pesticides - Warning Signs. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Office of Pesticide Programs, (1999, July 6). Provides description of warning sign requirements, including examples of warning signs in other languages.

Biologicals

• Veterinary chemicals include biologicals and antibiotics. Biologicals are made from living products such as viruses or bacteria processed to enhance the immunity of an animal to a specific infectious disease or diseases. The main risk groups are those involved in livestock production and related veterinary care who administer these products to animals, including farmers, veterinarians, and their assistants. Hazards associated with biologicals include accidental inoculation, splashing the product into the eyes or mucous membrane, and contamination of the broken skin. The result may be an infection, inflammation, or an allergic reaction. The primary products that have been associated with occupational illnesses include brucellosis strain 19⁽⁶⁵⁾, Escherichia coli bacterins, Jhone's disease bacterin, erysipelas vaccines, contagious ecthyma vaccine, and Newcastle disease vaccine^(66,67).
  
  
• Antibiotics are products derived from (or synthesized) from living organisms, mainly mold species of the genus streptomyces and include penicillin, tetracycline, sulfamethazine, erythromycin, and virginiamycin. Exposure can occur to livestock producers, veterinarians, and feed manufacturers and formulators by direct contact with antibiotic-containing feeds or via aerosol exposure within livestock buildings, feed preparation areas on the farm, or feed manufacturing plants.
  
  
• Zoonoses are infectious diseases common to animals and humans. At least 24 of the over 150 such diseases known worldwide, are occupational hazards for agricultural workers in North America^(49,69). The agricultural worker's risk of acquiring a zoonotic infection varies with the type and species of animal and the geographic location.
  
  
• Control of exposure to biologicals should start with good animal handling techniques, facilities⁽⁶⁸⁾, and include some personal protective equipment (PPE).
  
  
• Control of these infections in the production phase depends largely on an awareness of the specific hazards, and good preventive veterinary care, hazard communication, and medical back-up, especially in cases where serological monitoring of animals or people may be indicated^(49,69).

Psychological Stress

• Psychological stress in agriculture manifests itself in suicide at a greater frequency⁽²⁷⁾, more frequent mental disability⁽²⁸⁾, and decreased intra-family functionality⁽²⁹⁾. The effects of stress with seasonal work-cycle peaks, adverse weather conditions, and machinery breakdowns⁽³⁰⁾ interacts with the stoic and independent nature of farmers making them reluctant to seek professional help⁽³¹⁾.

Skin Exposures

• Diseases of the skin are very common in agriculture, may become disabling, but are rarely life threatening^(5,32-34).

Evaluation

For information about evaluating agricultural operation hazards, see the following references:

• Brouwer, D.H. Assessment of occupational exposure to pesticides in Dutch bulb culture and glasshouse horticulture. Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands. Promotor: Prof.dr.ir. B. Brunekreef , Co-promotors: Dr.ir. D. Heederik, Dr. J.J. van Hemmen. PhD thesis, (2002).
  
  
• Safety in Swine Production Systems. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service Publication No. PIH-104, (1996, March). Describes gas and aerosol hazards in livestock production buildings.
  
  
• Pesticide Safety Education Program. University of Nebraska - Lincoln.
  
  
• Department of Pesticide Regulation (DPR). California Department of Pesticide Regulation. Provides useful information relating to pesticides. Includes a searchable Worker, Health and Safety Documents Index, consumer information, and other publications.
  
  
• EXTOXNET - EXTension TOXicology NETwork. Cooperative effort of the University of California-Davis, Oregon State University, Michigan State University, Cornell University, and the University of Idaho. Provides information more widely available via Pesticide Information Profiles, Toxicology Information Briefs, and Fact Sheets.

Safety and Health Programs

There are a few innovative control intervention programs across the US being tried in communities scattered around the country, but there needs to be greater activity⁽³¹⁾. The dearth of preventive services is probably related to the dual nature of agriculture as a workplace and a life style. This duality frustrates the development of both a clear governmental policy at the top and the expression of local interest at the bottom.

• Available services include:
  •  programs for migrant workers (primarily stressing medical services and surveillance, but not hygiene),
    
    
  • the cooperative extension service (usually not more than one specialist per state), and
    
    
  • the Farm Bureau (educational services to their insurees).

Research and Education Centers

• Specialized research and education centers have been developed at:
  
  
  • Iowa's Center for Agricultural Safety and Health at University of Iowa
    
    
  • The New York Center for Agricultural Medicine and Health (NYCAM/NEC) at Cooperstown, New York
    
    
  • The Southern Coastal Agromedicine, North Carolina Agromedicine Institute, (East Carolina University, NC State University, NC AT&T State University)
    
    
  • Western Center for Agricultural Health and Safety. University of California at Davis.

International Model Programs

• Internationally, apparently successful models programs have been developed in
  • Sweden⁽⁷⁰⁾ and
  • Finland⁽⁷¹⁾.

Additional Information

Related Safety and Health Topics Pages

• Confined Spaces
  


• Machine Guarding
  


• Medical and First Aid
  


• Occupational Asthma
  


• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
  


• Ventilation

Training

• AgSafe Agricultural Safety Training Materials. National Ag Safety Database (NASD). Twelve safety training modules (scripted in both English and Spanish) developed by AgSafe, a California-based non-profit coalition, for supervisors of farm workers.
  
  
• Publications. Western Center for Agricultural Health and Safety, University of California at Davis.
  
  
• Improve Emergency Response Training. Agricultural Safety and Health Program, Purdue University.
  
  
• Resources and Links: Agricultural Health & Safety. The Office of Radiation, Chemical & Biological Safety (ORCBS). Michigan State University.
  
  
• Pesticide Safety Education Program. University of Nebraska - Lincoln.
  
  
• Agricultural Safety. University of Florida, Electronic Data Information Source (EDIS) of UF/IFAS Extension.
  
  
• Agricultural Safety and Health. Pennsylvania State University.
  
  
• Publications & Resources. Ohio State University.

Other Resources

• Harvesting Health. Marshfield Clinic Research Foundation, National Farm Medicine Center. Features frequently asked questions about health and safety issues commonly found on farms.
  
  
• Agricultural Safety and Health Program. University of Minnesota.

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