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DISCLAIMER:

These guidelines were developed under contract using generally accepted secondary sources. The protocol used by the contractor for surveying these data sources was developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the Department of Energy (DOE). The information contained in these guidelines is intended for reference purposes only. None of the agencies have conducted a comprehensive check of the information and data contained in these sources. It provides a summary of information about chemicals that workers may be exposed to in their workplaces. The secondary sources used for supplements III and IV were published before 1992 and 1993, respectively, and for the remainder of the guidelines the secondary sources used were published before September 1996. This information may be superseded by new developments in the field of industrial hygiene. Therefore readers are advised to determine whether new information is available.

Introduction | Recognition | Evaluation | Controls | References | Bibliography | Reference Table

Introduction

This guideline summarizes pertinent information about thiram for workers and employers as well as for physicians, industrial hygienists, and other occupational safety and health professionals who may need such information to conduct effective occupational safety and health programs. Recommendations may be superseded by new developments; readers are therefore advised to regard these recommendations as general guidelines and to determine periodically whether new information is available.

Recognition

SUBSTANCE IDENTIFICATION

* Formula
C(6)H(12)N(2)S(4)
* Structure
(For Structure, see paper copy)
* Synonyms
Tetramethylthiuram disulfide; bis(dimethylthiocarbanoyl)disfulfide; TMTD, Arasan; Arasan-M; Arasan-SF; Fermide; Fernacol; tetramethylthioperoxydicarbonic acid diamide; Fernasan; Vancide TM.
* Identifiers
  1. CAS: 137-26-8.
  2. RTECS: JO1400000.
  3. DOT NA: 2771 55.
  4. DOT label: None.
* Appearance and odor
Thiram is a white or yellow crystalline solid with a characteristic odor. It is commercially available in the following forms: powder, pellets, dispersions, mixtures, granules, concentrates, and pastes. Some of the commercial grades are dyed blue.

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

* Physical data
  1. Molecular weight: 240.44.
  2. Boiling point (760 torr): Decomposes; at 20 torr, the boiling point is 129 degrees C (264 degrees F).
  3. Specific gravity (water = 1): 1.29.
  4. Vapor density: Not applicable.
  5. Melting point: 156 degrees C (313 degrees F) pure; 146 degrees C (295 degrees F) commercial grades.
  6. Vapor pressure at 20 degrees C (68 degrees F): Almost zero.
  7. Solubility: Insoluble in water, gasoline, alkalies, and aliphatic hydrocarbons; soluble in alcohol, benzene, carbon disulfide, chloroform, and other organic solvents.
  8. Evaporation rate: Not applicable.
* Reactivity
  1. Conditions contributing to instability: Contact with acids causes decomposition.
  2. Incompatibilities: Contact of thiram with strong oxidizers may cause fires and explosions. Contact with strong acids or oxidizable materials may cause the formation of toxic gases such as hydrogen sulfide.
  3. Hazardous decomposition products: Toxic gases and vapors (such as sulfur dioxide, carbon disulfide, and carbon monoxide) may be released in a fire involving thiram.
  4. Special precautions: None reported.
* Flammability
There is no National Fire Protection Association fire hazard rating for thiram; however, this substance is reported to be combustible.
  1. Flash point: 89 degrees C (192 degrees F).
  2. Autoignition temperature: Data not available.
  3. Flammable limits in air: Data not available.
  4. Extinguishant: Use dry chemical, carbon dioxide, Halon, water spray, or standard foam for small fires and water spray, fog, or standard foam for large fires.

    Fires involving thiram should be fought upwind and from the maximum distance possible. Keep unnecessary people away; isolate hazard area and deny entry. Emergency personnel should stay out of low areas and ventilate closed spaces before entering. Containers of thiram may explode in the heat of the fire and should be moved from the fire area if it is possible to do so safely. If this is not possible, cool containers from the sides with water until well after the fire is out. Stay away from the ends of containers. Dikes should be used to contain fire-control water for later disposal. Firefighters should wear a full set of protective clothing, including a self-contained breathing apparatus, when fighting fires involving thiram. Chemical protective clothing that is specifically recommended for thiram may not provide thermal protection unless so stated by the clothing manufacturer. Firefighters' protective clothing is not effective against fires involving thiram.
* Warning properties
No quantitative data are available on the odor threshold for thiram.

* Eye irritation properties
No information is available on the specific concentration of thiram at which eye irritation begins; however, the dust of thiram is reported to be irritating to the eyes.

EXPOSURE LIMITS

The current Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure limit (PEL) for thiram is 5 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) of air as an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) concentration [29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z-1-A]. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has not issued a recommended exposure limit (REL) for thiram; however, NIOSH concurs with the PEL established for this substance by OSHA [NIOSH 1988]. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has assigned thiram a threshold limit value (TLV) of 1 mg/m3 as a TWA for a normal 8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek [ACGIH 1991, p. 35]. The ACGIH limit is based on the risk of systemic effects associated with exposure to thiram [ACGIH 1986, p. 573.2(87)].
Evaluation

HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION

* Routes of exposure
Exposure to thiram can occur via inhalation, ingestion, and eye or skin contact.

* Summary of toxicology
  1. Effects on Animals: Thiram is an irritant of the eyes, mucous membranes, and skin and a nervous system toxin on acute exposure; this substance also causes liver and kidney damage and reproductive effects in several animal species on chronic exposure. The oral LD(50) in rats is 560 mg/kg, and the lowest lethal dermal dose in rabbits in 1 g/kg [RTECS 1991]. In contact with the skin and eyes of exposed rabbits, thiram caused irritation; in rabbits and guinea pigs, this substance has also caused skin sensitization [ACGIH 1986, p. 573.1(87)]. Rats, cats, and rabbits survived a 4-hour exposure to thiram dust at concentrations to range from 500 to 6225 mg/m3 [ACGIH 1986, p. 573.1(87)]. Rabbits exposed by inhalation to a 1.27-mg/m3 concentration of thiram for 30 days or to 1.9 mg/m3 for 7 hours/day, 5 days/week for 5 weeks showed kidney and liver degeneration and lung irritation at autopsy [ACGIH 1986, p. 573.1(87); HSDB 1992]. Rats fed 500 ppm in the diet for 13 weeks showed a decreased rate of body weight gain; at a dietary dose of 1000 ppm, increased blood urea nitrogen was noted; at 2500 ppm, liver enzyme abnormalities and testicular degeneration were also observed [ACGIH 1986, p. 573.1(87)]. Rats fed thiram at doses ranging from 3 to 67 mg/kg or at 100 to 1000 ppm for longer periods (1 to 1.5 years) showed nervous system changes (weakness, ataxia, hind leg paralysis, leg muscular dystrophy), increased relative liver and kidney weights, and histologic changes of the thyroid (squamous metaplasia), testes, ovaries, liver, kidneys, brain, spleen, and pancreas [ACGIH 1986, p. 573.1(87)]. Thiram is embryotoxic and fetotoxic in experimental animals at maternally toxic doses; in the mouse, rat, and hamster, administration during organogenesis caused skeletal abnormalities in the offspring of dams [Klaassen, Amdur, and Doull 1986, p. 572; Hathaway, Proctor, Hughes, and Fischman 1991, p. 543; RTECS 1991]. Thiram has been tested for carcinogenicity in mice by oral administration and subcutaneous injection, and the International Agency for Research on Cancer has concluded that the available data are insufficient to evaluate thiram's carcinogenicity in animals [IARC 1976, Vol. 12, p. 232]. Thiram is also weakly mutagenic in bacterial and mammalian test systems [RTECS 1991; ACGIH 1986, p. 573.1(87)].
  2. Effects on Humans: In humans, thiram is an eye, nose, and throat irritant, a central nervous system toxin, and a skin sensitizer. Volunteers given daily thiram doses of 0.5 g/day for several weeks showed no adverse effects [IARC 1976, Vol. 12, p. 231]. One worker who treated seeds with thiram for a 10-hour period, during which he was estimated to have received a "substantial" exposure, died 4 days later [Hathaway, Proctor, Hughes, and Fischman 1991, p. 543]. Several members of a group of workers exposed to thiram during the planting of trees reported experiencing eye, nose, and throat irritation, headache, and skin problems [Clayton and Clayton 1981, pp. 1981, 2104]. Workers chronically exposed to thiram and concurrently ingesting alcohol have developed skin reactions without any systemic effects. In these cases, the skin becomes red, flushed, and itchy and may develop wheals [Hathaway, Proctor, Hughes, and Fischman 1991, p. 543]. In susceptible individuals, thiram can cause dermatitis even without concomitant alcohol ingestion, and sensitization of the skin has occurred on the hands, forearms, and feet of exposed individuals [Hathaway, Proctor, Hughes, and Fischman 1991, p. 543]. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) notes that studies from the USSR report thyroid gland enlargement, one case of thyroid cancer, and seven cases of thyroid abnormalities in a group of 105 workers exposed to thiram at unspecified concentrations for more than 3 years. However, IARC concludes that the available data are insufficient to determine the carcinogenicity of thiram in humans [IARC 1976, Vol. 12, p. 232].
* Signs and symptoms of exposure
  1. Acute exposure: The signs and symptoms of acute exposure to thiram include redness and inflammation of the eyes and eyelids, scratchy throat, runny nose, coughing, and sneezing; headaches; and, if alcohol is ingested concurrently, skin flushing, itching, palpitations, nausea, and hypertension.
  2. Chronic exposure: The signs and symptoms of chronic exposure to thiram may include raised, reddened, and itching areas of the skin (hives) and thyroid gland enlargement.
* Emergency procedures:

In the event of an emergency, the rescuer should don appropriate personal protective equipment, remove the victim from further exposure, send for medical assistance, and initiate the following emergency procedures:
  1. Eye exposure: If thiram or a solution containing this substance gets into the eyes, immediately flush the eyes with large amounts of water for a minimum of 15 minutes, lifting the lower and upper lids occasionally. If irritation persists, get medical attention as soon as possible.
  2. Skin exposure: If thiram or a solution containing this substance contacts the skin, the contaminated skin should be washed with soap and water. If irritation persists, get medical attention.
  3. Inhalation: If thiram dust is inhaled, move the victim at once to fresh air and get medical care as soon as possible. If the victim is not breathing, perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation; if breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Keep the victim warm and quiet until medical help arrives.
  4. Ingestion: If thiram or a solution containing this substance is ingested, give the victim several glasses of water to drink and then induce vomiting by having the victim touch the back of the throat with the finger or by giving syrup of ipecac as directed on the package. Do not force an unconscious or convulsing person to drink liquids or to vomit. Get medical help immediately. Keep the victim warm and quiet until medical help arrives.
  5. Rescue: Remove an incapacitated worker from further exposure and implement appropriate emergency procedures (e.g., those listed on the Material Safety Data Sheet required by OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard, 29 CFR 1910.1200). All workers should be familiar with emergency procedures, the location and proper use of emergency equipment, and methods of protecting themselves during rescue operations.
EXPOSURE SOURCES AND CONTROL METHODS

The following operations may involve thiram and lead to worker exposures to this substance:

* Use in the rubber industry as an accelerator, peptizing agent, and vulcanizing agent for synthetic and natural rubber
* Use as an agricultural fungicide and as a disinfectant for plants, trees, fruits, mushrooms, vegetables, nuts, and seeds
* Use as a bacteriostat in commercial and surgical soaps, anitseptic sprays, sunburn oils, and edible oils and fats
* Use as a rodent and deer repellant on plants and trees
* Use as an insecticide against the Japanese beetle
* Use as an antioxidant in polyolefin plastics
* Use as a wood preservative and tulip bulb spray
* Use as a lube oil additive

Methods that are effective in controlling worker exposures to thiram, depending on the feasibility of implementation, are

* Process enclosure,
* Local exhaust ventilation,
* General dilution ventilation, and
* Personal protective equipment.

The following publications are good sources of information on control methods:
  1. ACGIH [1986]. Industrial ventilation--a manual of recommended practice. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
  2. Burton DJ [1986]. Industrial ventilation--a self study companion. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
  3. Alden JL, Kane JM [1982]. Design of industrial ventilation systems. New York, NY: Industrial Press, Inc.
  4. Wadden RA, Scheff PA [1987]. Engineering design for control of workplace hazards. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  5. Plog BA [1988]. Fundamentals of industrial hygiene. Chicago, IL: National Safety Council.
MEDICAL MONITORING

Workers who may be exposed to chemical hazards should be monitored in a systematic program of medical surveillance that is intended to prevent occupational injury and disease. The program should include education of employers and workers about work-related hazards, placement of workers in jobs that do not jeopardize their safety or health, early detection of adverse health effects, and referral of workers for diagnosis and treatment. The occurrence of disease or other work-related adverse health effects should prompt immediate evaluation of primary preventive measures (e.g., industrial hygiene monitoring, engineering controls, and personal protective equipment). A medical monitoring program is intended to supplement, not replace, such measures. To place workers effectively and to detect and control work-related health effects, medical evaluations should be performed (1) before job placement, (2) periodically during the period of employment, and (3) at the time of job transfer or termination.

* Preplacement medical evaluation

Before a worker is placed in a job with a potential for exposure to thiram, a licensed health care professional should evaluate and document the worker's baseline health status with thorough medical, environmental, and occupational histories, a physical examination, and physiologic and laboratory tests appropriate for the anticipated occupational risks. These should concentrate on the function and integrity of the skin and central nervous system. Workers whose jobs involve potential thiram exposure should be advised that the ingestion of alcohol after inhalation or ingestion of thiram may produce the signs and symptoms of the Antabuse syndrome.

A preplacement medical evaluation is recommended to assess an individual's suitability for employment at a specific job and to detect and assess medical conditions that may be aggravated or may result in increased risk when a worker is exposed to thiram at or below the prescribed exposure limit. The health care professional should consider the probable frequency, intensity, and duration of exposure as well as the nature and degree of any applicable medical condition. Such conditions (which should not be regarded as absolute contraindications to job placement) include a history of excessive alcohol intake or findings consistent with diseases of the central nervous system or skin.

* Periodic medical examinations and biological monitoring

Occupational health interviews and physical examinations should be performed at regular intervals during the employment period, as mandated by any applicable Federal, State, or local standard. Where no standard exists and the hazard is minimal, evaluations should be conducted every 3 to 5 years or as frequently as recommended by an experienced occupational health physician. Additional examinations may be necessary if a worker develops symptoms attributable to thiram exposure. The interviews, examinations, and medical screening tests should focus on identifying the adverse effects of thiram on the central nervous system or skin. Workers should alos be advised of the interaction between thiram exposure and alcohol. Current health status should be compared with the baseline health status of the individual worker or with expected values for a suitable reference population.

Biological monitoring involves sampling and analyzing body tissues or fluids to provide an index of exposure to a toxic substance or metabolite. No biological monitoring test acceptable for routine use has yet been developed for thiram.

* Medical examinations recommended at the time of job transfer or termination

The medical, environmental, and occupational history interviews, the physical examination, and selected physiologic or laboratory tests that were conducted at the time of placement should be repeated at the time of job transfer or termination to determine the worker's medical status at the end of his or her employment. Any changes in the worker's health status should be compared with those expected for a suitable reference population.

WORKPLACE MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES

Determination of a worker's exposure to airborne thiram is made using a polytetrafluoroethylene (FA) filter (1.0 micron). Samples are collected at a recommended flow rate of 3.0 liters per minute until a recommended air volume of 400 liters is collected. Analysis is conducted by high performance liquid chromatography using ultraviolet detection. This method has a sampling and analytical error of 0.09 and is described in NIOSH Method No. 5005 [NIOSH 1984].

Controls

PERSONAL HYGIENE PROCEDURES

If thiram contacts the skin, workers should wash the affected areas with soap and water.

Clothing contaminated with thiram should be removed immediately, and provisions should be made for the safe removal of the chemical from the clothing. Persons laundering the clothes should be informed of the hazardous properties of thiram, particularly its potential to cause skin irritation and sensitization.

A worker who handles thiram should thoroughly wash hands, forearms, and face with soap and water before eating, using tobacco products, or using toilet facilities.

Workers should not eat, drink, or use tobacco products in areas where thiram or a solution containing thiram is handled, processed, or stored.

STORAGE

Thiram should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area in tightly sealed containers that are labeled in accordance with OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard. Containers of thiram should be protected from physical damage and should be stored separately from strong oxidizers, strong acids, oxidizable materials, heat, sparks, and open flame. Because containers that formerly contained thiram may still hold product residues, they should be handled appropriately.

SPILLS AND LEAKS

In the event of a spill or leak involving thiram, persons not wearing protective equipment and clothing should be restricted from contaminated areas until cleanup has been completed. The following steps should be undertaken following a spill or leak:
  1. Do not touch the spilled material.
  2. Notify safety personnel.
  3. Remove all sources of heat and ignition.
  4. Water spray may be used to reduce vapors.
  5. For small dry spills, use a clean shovel and place the material into a clean, dry container; cover and remove the container from the spill area.
  6. For small liquid spills, take up with sand or other noncombustible absorbent material and place into closed containers for later disposal.
  7. For large liquid spills, build dikes far ahead of the spill to contain the thiram for later reclamation or disposal.
EMERGENCY PLANNING, COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW, AND HAZARDOUS WASTE

MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENTS

The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) regulatory requirements for emergency planning, community right-to-know, and hazardous waste management may vary over time. Users are therefore advised to determine periodically whether new information is available.

* Emergency planning requirements
Thiram is not subject to EPA emergency planning requirements under the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) (Title III).

* Reportable quantity requirements (releases of hazardous substances)
A hazardous substance release is defined by EPA as any spilling, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging, injecting, escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing into the environment (including the abandonment or discarding of containers) of hazardous substances. In the event of a release that is above the reportable quantity for that chemical, employers are required by the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) to notify the proper Federal authorities.

The reportable quantity for thiram is 10 pounds. If an amount equal to or greater than this quantity is released within a 24-hour period, CERCLA requires employers to notify the National Response Center IMMEDIATELY at (800) 424-8802 (in Washington, D.C. at (202) 426-2675).

* Community right-to-know requirements
Employers are not required by Section 313 of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) to submit a Toxic Chemical Release Inventory form (Form R) to EPA reporting the amount of thiram emitted or released from their facility annually.

* Hazardous waste management requirements
EPA considers a waste to be hazardous if it exhibits any of the following characteristics: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity, as defined in 40 CFR 261.21-261.24. Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), EPA has specifically listed many chemical wastes as hazardous. Thiram is listed as a hazardous waste under RCRA and has been assigned EPA Hazardous Waste No. U244. This substance has been banned from land disposal and may be treated by incineration. Thiram also may be disposed of in an organometallic or organic lab pack that meets the requirements of 40 CFR 264.316 or 265.316.

Providing more information about the removal and disposal of specific chemicals is beyond the scope of this guideline. EPA, U.S. Department of Transportation, and State and local regulations should be followed to ensure that removal, transport, and disposal of this substance are conducted in accordance with existing regulations. To be certain that chemical waste disposal meets EPA regulatory requirements, employers should address any questions to the RCRA hotline at (202) 382-3000 (in Washington, D.C.) or toll-free at (800) 424-9346 (outside Washington, D.C.). In addition, relevant State and local authorities should be contacted for information on any requirements they may have for the waste removal and disposal of this substance.

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

* Conditions for respirator use
Good industrial hygiene practice requires that engineering controls be used where feasible to reduce workplace concentrations of hazardous materials to the prescribed exposure limit. However, some situations may require the use of respirators to control exposure. Respirators must be worn if the ambient concentration of thiram exceeds prescribed exposure limits. Respirators may be used (1) before engineering controls have been installed, (2) during work operations such as maintenance or repair activities that involve unknown exposures, (3) during operations that require entry into tanks or closed vessels, and (4) during emergency situations. If the use of respirators is necessary, the only respirators permitted are those that have been approved by NIOSH and the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA).

* Respiratory protection program
Employers should institute a complete respiratory protection program that, at a minimum, complies with the requirements of OSHA's Respiratory Protection Standard. Such a program must include respirator selection (see Table 1), an evaluation of the worker's ability to perform the work while wearing a respirator, the regular training of personnel, fit testing, periodic workplace monitoring, and regular respirator maintenance, inspection, and cleaning. The implementation of an adequate respiratory protection program (including selection of the correct respirator) requires that a knowledgeable person be in charge of the program and that the program be evaluated regularly. For additional information on the selection and use of respirators and on the medical screening of respirator users, consult the NIOSH Respirator Decision Logic and the NIOSH Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection.

Table 1 lists the respiratory protection that NIOSH recommends for workers exposed to thiram. The recommended protection may vary over time because of changes in the exposure limit for thiram or in respirator certification requirements. Users are therefore advised to determine periodically whether new information is available.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Protective clothing should be worn to prevent skin contact with thiram. Chemical protective clothing should be selected on the basis of available performance data, manufacturers' recommendations, and evaluation of the clothing under actual conditions of use. No reports have been published on the resistance of various protective clothing materials to thiram permeation. If permeability data are not readily available, protective clothing manufacturers should be requested to provide information on the best chemical protective clothing for workers to wear when they are exposed to thiram.

If thiram is dissolved in an organic solvent, the permeation properties of both the solvent and the mixture must be considered when selecting personal protective equipment and clothing.

Safety glasses, goggles, or faceshields should be worn during operations in which thiram might contact the eyes (e.g., through dust particles). Eyewash fountains and emergency showers should be available within the immediate work area whenever the potential exists for eye or skin contact with thiram.

References

ACGIH [1986]. Documentation of the threshold limit values and biological exposure indices. 5th edition. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.

ACGIH [1991]. TLVs. Threshold limit values and biological exposure indices for 1991-1992. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Clayton G, Clayton F [1981]. Patty's industrial hygiene and toxicology. 3rd revised edition. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

[CFR]. Code of Federal regulations. Title 29 (Department of Labor), Parts 1910.134, 1910.1000, and 1910.1200. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.

[CFR]. Code of Federal regulations. Title 40 (Protection of Environment). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.

Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, Hughes JP, and Fischman, ML [1991]. Proctor and Hughes' chemical hazards of the workplace. 3rd edition. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

HSDB [1992]. Thiram. Bethesda, MD: The Hazardous Substances Data Bank, National Library of Medicine.

IARC [1976]. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risk of chemicals to man. Volume 12. Lyon, France: World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer.

Klaassen CD, Amdur MO, Doull J [1986]. Casarett and Doull's toxicology. 3rd edition. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company.

NIOSH [1984]. NIOSH manual of analytical methods. 3rd edition, Volume II. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

NIOSH [1987a]. NIOSH guide to industrial respiratory protection. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 87-116.

NIOSH [1987b]. Respirator decision logic. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 87-108.

NIOSH [1988]. Testimony of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health on the Occupational Safety and Health Administration's proposed rule: 29 CFR 1910, Docket No. H-020, August 2, 1988. NIOSH policy statements. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

RTECS [1991]. Thiram. Bethesda, MD: Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances, National Library of Medicine.

Bibliography

ACGIH [1986]. Documentation of the threshold limit values and biological exposure indices. 5th edition. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.

[CFR]. Code of Federal regulations. Title 49 (Department of Transportation). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.

DOT [1987]. 1987 Emergency response guidebook, guide 55. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Hazardous Materials Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration.

Farm Chemicals Handbook [1990]. Vol. 76. Willoughby, OH: Meister Publishing Co.

Grant WM [1986]. Toxicology of the eye. 3rd edition. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.

Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, Hughes JP, and Fischman, ML [1991]. Proctor and Hughes' chemical hazards of the workplace. 3rd edition. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Hawley's condensed chemical dictionary [1987]. Sax NI, Lewis RJ. 11th edition. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.

Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet [1989]. Thiram. Trenton, NJ: New Jersey Department of Health.

HSDB [1992]. Thiram. Bethesda, MD: The Hazardous Substances Data Bank, National Library of Medicine.

IARC [1976]. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risk of chemicals to man. Volume 12. Lyon, France: World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer.

Merck Index [1983]. Windholz M. 10th edition. Rahway, NJ: Merck & Company.

NIOSH [1990]. NIOSH pocket guide to chemical hazards. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 85-114.

Parmeggiani L [1983]. Encyclopedia of occupational health and safety. 3rd revised edition. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Organisation.

Proctor NH, Hughes JP, Fischman ML [1988]. Chemical hazards of the workplace. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company.

RTECS [1991]. Thiram. Bethesda, MD: Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances, National Library of Medicine.

Sittig M [1991]. Handbook of toxic and hazardous chemicals. 3rd edition. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications.

USCG [1984]. CHRIS (chemical hazards response information system) hazardous chemical data manual: thiram. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S. Coast Guard, Commandant Instruction M16465.12A.

Weast RC [1984]. CRC handbook of chemistry and physics. 64th edition. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc.

Reference Table

Table 1.
NIOSH recommended respiratory protection for workers exposed to thiram*
Condition Minimum respiratory protection**
Airborne concentration of thiram:
5 to 50(+) mg/m3
(10 × PEL)		 Any air-purifying, half-mask respirator (including a disposable respirator) equipped with pesticide cartridges, or

Any supplied-air respirator equipped with a half mask and operated in a demand (negative-pressure) mode
5 to 125 mg/m3
(25 × PEL)		 Any powered, air-purifying respirator equipped with a loose-fitting hood or helmet and pesticide cartridges or a pesticide canister, or

Any supplied-air respirator equipped with a hood or helmet and operated in a continuous-flow mode
5 to 250 mg/m3
(50 × PEL)		 Any air-purifying, full-facepiece respirator equipped with pesticide cartridges or a pesticide canister, or

Any powered, air-purifying respirator equipped with a tight-fitting facepiece and pesticide cartridges or a pesticide canister, or

Any supplied-air respirator equipped with a full facepiece and operated in a demand (negative-pressure) mode, or

Any supplied-air respirator equipped with a tight-fitting facepiece and operated in a continuous-flow mode, or

Any self-contained respirator equipped with a full facepiece and operated in a demand (negative-pressure) mode
5 to 1500 mg/m3
(300 × PEL)		 Any supplied-air respirator operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode
Entry into IDLH(++) or unknown concentrations Any self-contained respirator equipped with a full facepiece and operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode, or

Any supplied-air respirator equipped with a full facepiece and operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode in combination with an auxiliary self-contained breathing apparatus operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode
Firefighting Any self-contained respirator equipped with a full facepiece and operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode
Escape Any air-purifying, full-facepiece respirator equipped with a pesticide canister, or

Any escape-type, self-contained breathing apparatus with a suitable service life (number of minutes required to escape the environment)

* The OSHA PEL is 5 mg/m3 as an 8-hour TWA. No NIOSH REL has been issued.
** Only NIOSH/MSHA-approved equipment should be used. Also note the following:
  1. Respirators accepted for use at higher concentrations may be used at lower concentrations; respirators must not, however, be used at concentrations higher than those for which they are approved.
  2. Air-purifying respirators may not be used in oxygen-deficient atmospheres or in airborne concentrations that are immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH).
(+) Thiram has been reported to cause eye irritation; eye protection may be needed.
(++) The thiram concentration that is immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) is 1500 mg/m3 [NIOSH 1990].


Introduction | Recognition | Evaluation | Controls | References | Bibliography | Reference Table