Disclaimer: These guidelines were developed under contract using generally accepted secondary sources. The protocol used by the contractor for surveying these data sources was developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the Department of Energy (DOE). The information contained in these guidelines is intended for reference purposes only. None of the agencies have conducted a comprehensive check of the information and data contained in these sources. It provides a summary of information about chemicals that workers may be exposed to in their workplaces. The secondary sources used for supplements 111 and 1V were published before 1992 and 1993, respectively, and for the remainder of the guidelines the secondary sources used were published before September 1996. This information may be superseded by new developments in the field of industrial hygiene. Therefore readers are advised to determine whether new information is available.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH GUIDELINE FOR DICHLOROETHYL ETHER

INTRODUCTION

This guideline summarizes pertinent information about dichloroethyl ether for workers and employers as well as for physicians, industrial hygienists, and other occupational safety and health professionals who may need such information to conduct effective occupational safety and health programs. Recommendations may be superseded by new developments in these fields; readers are therefore advised to regard these recommendations as general guidelines and to determine whether new information is available.

SUBSTANCE IDENTIFICATION

* Formula

C(4)H(8)Cl(2)O

* Structure

(For Structure, see paper copy)

* Synonyms

Bis(2-chloroethyl)ether, 2,2'-dichlorodiethyl ether, dichloroether, dichloroethyl oxide, chlorex, 1-chloro-2-(beta-chloroethoxyethane)

* Identifiers

1. CAS No.: 111-44-4

2. RTECS No.: KN0875000

3. DOT UN: 1916 55

4. DOT label: Poison, Flammable liquid

* Appearance and odor

Dichloroethyl ether is a colorless liquid with a pungent odor that is characteristic of chlorinated solvents. Air odor thresholds ranging from 0.049 to 35 parts per million (ppm) parts of air have been reported for dichloroethyl ether.

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

* Physical data

1. Molecular weight: 143

2. Boiling point (at 760 mm Hg): 178 degrees C (352 degrees F)

3. Specific gravity (water = 1): 1.2 at 20 degrees C (68 degrees F)

4. Vapor density: 4.9

5. Freezing point: -50 degrees C (-58 degrees F)

6. Vapor pressure at 20 degrees C (68 degrees F): 0.4 mm Hg

7. Solubility: Insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol, ether, acetone, and benzene.

8. Evaporation rate: Data not available.

* Reactivity

1. Conditions contributing to instability: Heat or flame. Vapor forms explosive mixture with air.

2. Incompatibilities: Contact between dichloroethyl ether and strong oxidizers, oleum, or chlorosulfonic acid should be avoided. Dichloroethyl ether decomposes in the presence of moisture to form hydrochloric acid.

3. Hazardous decomposition products: Toxic gases and vapors such as phosgene, hydrogen chloride, and carbon monoxide may be released in a fire involving dichloroethyl ether.

4. Special precautions: None reported.

* Flammability

The National Fire Protection Association has assigned a flammability rating of 2 (moderate fire hazard) to dichloroethyl ether.

1. Flash point: 55 degrees C (131 degrees F) (closed cup)

2. Autoignition temperature: 369 degrees C (696 degrees F)

3. Flammable limits in air (percent by volume): Lower, 2.7; upper, data not available

4. Extinguishant: For small fires use dry chemical, water spray, or regular foam. Use water spray, fog, or regular foam to fight large fires involving dichloroethyl ether.

Fires involving dichloroethyl ether should be fought upwind from the maximum distance possible. Keep unnecessary people away; isolate the hazard area and deny entry. Emergency personnel should stay out of low areas and ventilate closed spaces before entering. Containers of dichloroethyl ether may explode in the heat of the fire and should be moved from the fire area if it is possible to do so safely. Stay away from the ends of containers. Dike fire-control water for later disposal; do not scatter this material. Firefighters should wear a full set of protective clothing and self-contained breathing apparatus when fighting fires involving dichloroethyl ether.

EXPOSURE LIMITS

The current Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure limit (PEL) for dichloroethyl ether is 15 ppm (90 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m(3))) as a ceiling limit. A worker's exposure to dichloroethyl ether shall at no time exceed this ceiling level. The OSHA PEL also bears a "Skin" notation, which indicates that the cutaneous route of exposure (including mucous membranes and eyes) contributes to overall exposure [29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z-1].

* NIOSH REL

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has established a recommended exposure limit (REL) for dichloroethyl ether of 5 ppm (30 mg/m(3)) as a TWA for up to a 10-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek and a short-term exposure limit (STEL) of 10 ppm (60 mg/m(3)). NIOSH also assigns a "Skin" notation to dichloroethyl ether. NIOSH considers dichloroethyl ether a potential occupational carcinogen [NIOSH 1992].

* ACGIH TLV

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has assigned dichloroethyl ether a threshold limit value (TLV) of 5 ppm (29 mg/m(3)) as a TWA for a normal 8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek and a short-term exposure limit (STEL) of 10 ppm (58 mg/m(3)) for periods not to exceed 15 minutes. Exposures at the STEL concentration should not be repeated more than four times a day and should be separated by intervals of at least 60 minutes. The ACGIH also assigns a "Skin" notation to dichloroethyl ether [ACGIH 1994, p. 18].

* Rationale for Limits

The NIOSH limits are based on the risk of eye and respiratory irritation and pulmonary damage [NIOSH 1992].

The ACGIH limits are based on the risk of eye and upper respiratory irritation and lung damage [ACGIH 1991, p. 433].

HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION

* Routes of Exposure

Exposure to dichloroethyl ether can occur through inhalation, ingestion, eye or skin contact, and absorption through the skin [Sittig 1991].

* Summary of toxicology

1. Effects on Animals: Dichloroethyl ether is a severe irritant of the eyes, upper respiratory tract, and lungs; at high ambient concentrations, it also causes narcosis in experimental animals [Hathaway et al. 1991]. The oral LD(50) in rats has been variously reported as 75 mg/kg, 105 mg/kg, and 150 mg/kg. In mice, the acute oral LD(50) is 136 mg/kg [NLM 1995]. Lethal amounts of pure dichloroethyl ether liquid or 10 percent solution is absorbed rapidly through intact skin; the 24-hour dermal LD(50) in rabbits is 90 mg/kg [Hathaway et al. 1991; Clayton and Clayton 1982]. In guinea pigs, exposures at levels of 500 ppm produced immediate irritation of the eyes and nasal passages, with pronounced tearing. Exposures to concentrations in this range for 5 to 8 hours were fatal; death was preceded by unsteadiness and coma. Pulmonary edema, pulmonary hemorrhage, and lung consolidation were directly responsible for death, although congestion of the liver, kidneys, and brain were also noted [ACGIH 1991; Hathaway et al. 1991]. In rodents exposed chronically to 69 ppm dichloroethyl ether for 93 7-hour exposures, no pathologic manifestations were noted either grossly or microscopically, although growth retardation was observed [Clayton and Clayton 1982; ACGIH 1991]. Eye exposure to dichloroethyl ether as pure liquid, 10 percent solution in propylene glycol, or vapor caused irritation. In rabbits, eye contact with the pure liquid or the 10 percent solution caused moderate pain, conjunctival irritation, and moderate corneal injury that healed in 24 hours [Grant 1986; Hathaway et al. 1991; Clayton and Clayton 1982]. Repeated oral administration of 300 mg/kg daily to both sexes of two strains of mice for 80 weeks significantly increased the incidence of tumors, most of which were liver tumors [Hathaway et al. 1991]. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that there is limited supporting evidence of carcinogenicity in animals [IARC 1987].

2. Effects on Humans: Dichloroethyl ether is a severe irritant of the eyes and respiratory tract in humans. At 35 ppm, human volunteers reported no irritation, although they detected a nauseating odor; at concentrations between 100 and 260 ppm, they experienced moderate irritation. When the concentration reached 500 ppm, exposure caused severe and intolerable irritation of the eyes and respiratory passages [ACGIH 1991]. Exposure to the vapor may cause pulmonary edema of delayed onset (up to 72 hours), and chronic low-level exposure may cause bronchitis [Sittig 1991; Parmeggiani 1983]. This chemical is not irritating to the skin but is easily absorbed through it and can be expected to cause liver and kidney damage if a large enough dose is absorbed [Gosselin 1984]. Exposure to high concentrations causes narcosis, but dichloroethyl ether is so irritating that such exposures are unlikely. Swallowing can be expected to cause gastrointestinal irritation and systemic poisoning, but this has not been reported in humans [Genium 1993]. The IARC determined that there is no adequate data available to assess the carcinogenic risk to humans [IARC 1987].

* Signs and symptoms of exposure

1. Acute exposure: Exposure to the vapors of dichloroethyl ether causes immediate tearing of the eyes and a burning sensation. Coughing, nausea, retching, and shortness of breath also occur at high concentrations. If the liquid is splashed into the eye, it may cause a corneal burn. Delayed pulmonary edema may occur up to 72 hours after severe overexposure. Ingestion can be expected to cause nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, and other symptoms of gastrointestinal irritation.

2. Chronic exposure: Repeated low-level exposure may cause bronchitis with persistent cough.

EMERGENCY MEDICAL PROCEDURES

* Emergency medical procedures: [NIOSH to supply]

5. Rescue: Remove an incapacitated worker from further exposure and implement appropriate emergency procedures (e.g., those listed on the Material Safety Data Sheet required by OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard [29 CFR 1910.1200]). All workers should be familiar with emergency procedures, the location and proper use of emergency equipment, and methods of protecting themselves during rescue operations.

EXPOSURE SOURCES AND CONTROL METHODS

The following operations may involve dichloroethyl ether and lead to worker exposures to this substance:

* The manufacture and transportation of dichloroethyl ether

* Used as solvent and dewaxing agent in the petroleum industry and in the manufacture of oils, fats, naphthalenes, greases, pectin, waxes, gums, tars, resins, soaps, cellulose esters, paints, varnish, lacquers, and finish removers

* Used as scouring, wetting, cleansing, and penetrating agent in the textile industry and as a solvent in the dry cleaning industry

* Used as soil fumigant, insecticide, and acaricide in agriculture

* Used as a reagent for chemical synthesis during manufacture of pharmaceuticals, rubber chemicals, resins, plasticizers, polymers, and other chemicals

Methods that are effective in controlling worker exposures to dichloroethyl ether, depending on the feasibility of implementation, are as follows:

* Process enclosure
* Local exhaust ventilation
* General dilution ventilation
* Personal protective equipment

Workers responding to a release or potential release of a hazardous substance must be protected as required by paragraph (q) of OSHA's Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard [29 CFR 1910.120].

Good sources of information about control methods are as follows:

1. Lewis 1993, p. 1.ACGIH [1992]. Industrial ventilation--a manual of recommended practice. 21st ed. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.

2. Burton DJ [1986]. Industrial ventilation--a self study companion. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.

3. Alden JL, Kane JM [1982]. Design of industrial ventilation systems. New York, NY: Industrial Press, Inc.

4. Wadden RA, Scheff PA [1987]. Engineering design for control of workplace hazards. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

5. Plog BA [1988]. Fundamentals of industrial hygiene. Chicago, IL: National Safety Council.

MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE

OSHA is currently developing requirements for medical surveillance. When these requirements are promulgated, readers should refer to them for additional information and to determine whether employers whose employees are exposed to dichloroethyl ether are required to implement medical surveillance procedures.

* Medical Screening

Workers who may be exposed to chemical hazards should be monitored in a systematic program of medical surveillance that is intended to prevent occupational injury and disease. The program should include education of employers and workers about work-related hazards, early detection of adverse health effects, and referral of workers for diagnosis and treatment. The occurrence of disease or other work-related adverse health effects should prompt immediate evaluation of primary preventive measures (e.g., industrial hygiene monitoring, engineering controls, and personal protective equipment). A medical surveillance program is intended to supplement, not replace, such measures. To detect and control work-related health effects, medical evaluations should be performed (1) before job placement, (2) periodically during the term of employment, and (3) at the time of job transfer or termination.

* Preplacement medical evaluation

Before a worker is placed in a job with a potential for exposure to dichloroethyl ether, a licensed health care professional should evaluate and document the worker's baseline health status with thorough medical, environmental, and occupational histories, a physical examination, and physiologic and laboratory tests appropriate for the anticipated occupational risks. These should concentrate on the function and integrity of the eyes, liver, kidneys, central nervous system, and respiratory system. Medical surveillance for respiratory disease should be conducted using the principles and methods recommended by the American Thoracic Society.

A preplacement medical evaluation is recommended to assess medical conditions that may be aggravated or may result in increased risk when a worker is exposed to dichloroethyl ether at or below the prescribed exposure limit. The health care professional should consider the probable frequency, intensity, and duration of exposure as well as the nature and degree of any applicable medical condition. Such conditions (which should not be regarded as absolute contraindications to job placement) include a history and other findings consistent with diseases of the eyes, liver, kidneys, central nervous system, or respiratory system.

* Periodic medical evaluations

Occupational health interviews and physical examinations should be performed at regular intervals during the employment period, as mandated by any applicable Federal, State, or local standard. Where no standard exists and the hazard is minimal, evaluations should be conducted every 3 to 5 years or as frequently as recommended by an experienced occupational health physician. Additional examinations may be necessary if a worker develops symptoms attributable to dichloroethyl ether exposure. The interviews, examinations, and medical screening tests should focus on identifying the adverse effects of dichloroethyl ether on the eyes, liver, kidneys, central nervous system, or respiratory system. Current health status should be compared with the baseline health status of the individual worker or with expected values for a suitable reference population.

* Termination medical evaluations

The medical, environmental, and occupational history interviews, the physical examination, and selected physiologic or laboratory tests that were conducted at the time of placement should be repeated at the time of job transfer or termination to determine the worker's medical status at the end of his or her employment. Any changes in the worker's health status should be compared with those expected for a suitable reference population. Because occupational exposure to dichloroethyl ether may cause diseases with prolonged latent periods, the need for medical surveillance may extend well beyond the termination of employment.

* Biological monitoring

Biological monitoring involves sampling and analyzing body tissues or fluids to provide an index of exposure to a toxic substance or metabolite. No biological monitoring test acceptable for routine use has yet been developed for dichloroethyl ether.

WORKPLACE MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT

Determination of a worker's exposure to airborne dichloroethyl ether is made using a charcoal tube (100/50 mg sections, 20/40 mesh). Samples are collected at a maximum flow rate of 1.0 liter/minute (ceiling, STEL, or TWA) until a maximum collection volume of 15 liters is reached for TWA or STEL sampling, or a minimum of collection time of 15 minutes for ceiling sampling. The sample is then treated with carbon disulfide. Analysis is conducted by gas chromatography using a flame ionization detector (GC/FID). This method is fully validated and is described in the OSHA Computerized Information System [OSHA 1994] and in NIOSH Method No. 1004 [NIOSH 1994b].

PERSONAL HYGIENE PROCEDURES

If dichloroethyl ether contacts the skin, workers should flush the affected areas immediately with plenty of water, followed by washing with soap and water.

Clothing contaminated with dichloroethyl ether should be removed immediately, and provisions should be made for the safe removal of the chemical from the clothing. Persons laundering the clothes should be informed of the hazardous properties of dichloroethyl ether, particularly its potential for causing poisoning through dermal absorption.

A worker who handles dichloroethyl ether should thoroughly wash hands, forearms, and face with soap and water before eating, using tobacco products, using toilet facilities, applying cosmetics, or taking medication.

Workers should not eat, drink, use tobacco products, apply cosmetics, or take medication in areas where dichloroethyl ether or a solution containing dichloroethyl ether is handled, processed, or stored.

STORAGE

Dichloroethyl ether should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area in tightly sealed containers that are labeled in accordance with OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard [29 CFR 1910.1200]. Containers of dichloroethyl ether should be protected from physical damage and light, heat sparks, and open flames, and should be stored separately from strong oxidizers. Ground and bond containers and equipment when transferring or pouring liquid to prevent static sparks. Use nonsparking tools. Dichloroethyl ether forms explosive peroxides on prolonged storage in the presence of air. Check for peroxides before distilling. Peroxide formation is accelerated by exposure to heat or light. Empty containers of dichloroethyl ether should be handled appropriately.

SPILLS AND LEAKS

In the event of a spill or leak involving dichloroethyl ether, persons not wearing protective equipment and clothing should be restricted from contaminated areas until cleanup has been completed. The following steps should be undertaken following a spill or leak:

1. Notify safety personnel.

2. Remove all sources of heat and ignition.

3. Ventilate potentially explosive atmospheres.

4. Do not touch the spilled material; stop the leak if it is possible to do so without risk.

5. Use non-sparking tools.

6. Water spray may be used to reduce vapors, but the spray may not prevent ignition in closed spaces. Do not flush waste into sewers, watersheds, and waterways.

7. For small liquid spills, take up with sand or other noncombustible absorbent material and place into closed containers for later disposal.

8. For large liquid spills, build dikes far ahead of the spill to contain the dichloroethyl ether for later reclamation or disposal.

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requirements for emergency planning, reportable quantities of hazardous releases, community right-to-know, and hazardous waste management may change over time. Users are therefore advised to determine periodically whether new information is available.

* Emergency planning requirements

Employers owning or operating a facility at which there are 10,000 pounds or more of dichloroethyl ether must comply with EPA's emergency planning requirements [40 CFR Part 355.30].

* Reportable quantity requirements for hazardous releases A hazardous substance release is defined by EPA as any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging, injecting, escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing into the environment (including the abandonment or discarding of contaminated containers) of hazardous substances. In the event of a release that is above the reportable quantity for that chemical, employers are required to notify the proper Federal, State, and local authorities [40 CFR 355.40].

The reportable quantity of dichloroethyl ether is 10 pounds. If an amount equal to or greater than this quantity is released within a 24-hour period in a manner that will expose persons outside the facility, employers are required to do the following:

- Notify the National Response Center immediately at (800) 424-8802 or at (202) 426-2675 in Washington, D.C. [40 CFR 302.6].

- Notify the emergency response commission of the State likely to be affected by the release [40 CFR 355.40].

- Notify the community emergency coordinator to the local emergency planning committee (or relevant local emergency response personnel) of any area likely to be affected by the release [40 CFR 355.40].

* Community right-to-know requirements

Employers who own or operate facilities in SIC codes 20 to 39 that employ 10 or more workers and that manufacture 25,000 pounds or more of dichloroethyl ether per calendar year or otherwise use 10,000 pounds or more of dichloroethyl ether per calendar year are required by EPA [40 CFR Part 372.30] to submit a Toxic Chemical Release Inventory form (Form R) to EPA reporting the amount of dichloroethyl ether emitted or released from their facility annually.

* Hazardous waste management requirements

EPA considers a waste to be hazardous if it exhibits any of the following characteristics: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity as defined in 40 CFR 261.21-261.24. Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) [40 USC 6901 et seq.], EPA has specifically listed many chemical wastes as hazardous. Dichloroethyl ether is listed as a hazardous waste under RCRA and has been assigned EPA Hazardous Waste No. U025. It is approved for land disposal after treatment and only if the concentration of dichloroethyl ether in the waste or treatment residual does not exceed 7.2 mg/kg.

Providing detailed information about the removal and disposal of specific chemicals is beyond the scope of this guideline. The U.S. Department of Transportation, EPA, and State and local regulations should be followed to ensure that removal, transport, and disposal of this substance are conducted in accordance with existing regulations. To be certain that chemical waste disposal meets EPA regulatory requirements, employers should address any questions to the RCRA hotline at (703) 412-9810 (in the Washington, D.C. area) or toll-free at (800) 424-9346 (outside Washington, D.C.). In addition, relevant State and local authorities should be contacted for information on any requirements they may have for the waste removal and disposal of this substance.

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

* Conditions for respirator use

Good industrial hygiene practice requires that engineering controls be used where feasible to reduce workplace concentrations of hazardous materials to the prescribed exposure limit. However, some situations may require the use of respirators to control exposure. Respirators must be worn if the ambient concentration of dichloroethyl ether exceeds prescribed exposure limits. Respirators may be used (1) before engineering controls have been installed, (2) during work operations such as maintenance or repair activities that involve unknown exposures, (3) during operations that require entry into tanks or closed vessels, and (4) during emergencies. Workers should only use respirators that have been approved by NIOSH and the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA).

* Respiratory protection program

Employers should institute a complete respiratory protection program that, at a minimum, complies with the requirements of OSHA's Respiratory Protection Standard [29 CFR 1910.134]. Such a program must include respirator selection, an evaluation of the worker's ability to perform the work while wearing a respirator, the regular training of personnel, respirator fit testing, periodic workplace monitoring, and regular respirator maintenance, inspection, and cleaning. The implementation of an adequate respiratory protection program (including selection of the correct respirator) requires that a knowledgeable person be in charge of the program and that the program be evaluated regularly. For additional information on the selection and use of respirators and on the medical screening of respirator users, consult the latest edition of the NIOSH Respirator Decision Logic [NIOSH 1987b] and the NIOSH Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection [NIOSH 1987a].

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Workers should use appropriate personal protective clothing and equipment that must be carefully selected, used, and maintained to be effective in preventing skin contact with dichloroethyl ether. The selection of the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) (e.g., gloves, sleeves, encapsulating suits) should be based on the extent of the worker's potential exposure to dichloroethyl ether. The resistance of one PPE material to permeation by dichloroethyl ether is shown below:

To evaluate the use of this or other PPE materials with dichloroethyl ether, users should consult the best available performance data and manufacturers' recommendations. Significant differences have been demonstrated in the chemical resistance of generically similar PPE materials (e.g., butyl) produced by different manufacturers. In addition, the chemical resistance of a mixture may be significantly different from that of any of its neat components.

Any chemical-resistant clothing that is used should be periodically evaluated to determine its effectiveness in preventing dermal contact. Safety showers and eye wash stations should be located close to operations that involve dichloroethyl ether.

Splash-proof chemical safety goggles or face shields (20 to 30 cm long, minimum) should be worn during any operation in which a solvent, caustic, or other toxic substance may be splashed into the eyes.

In addition to the possible need for wearing protective outer apparel (e.g., aprons, encapsulating suits), workers should wear work uniforms, coveralls, or similar full-body coverings that are laundered each day. Employers should provide lockers or other closed areas to store work and street clothing separately. Employers should collect work clothing at the end of each work shift and provide for its laundering. Laundry personnel should be informed about the potential hazards of handling contaminated clothing and instructed about measures to minimize their health risk.

Protective clothing should be kept free of oil and grease and should be inspected and maintained regularly to preserve its effectiveness.

Protective clothing may interfere with the body's heat dissipation, especially during hot weather or during work in hot or poorly ventilated work environments.

REFERENCES

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ACGIH [1991]. Documentation of the threshold limit values and biological exposure indices. 6th ed. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.

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